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ASPARAGACEAE(Asparagus family)• Medicinal / Folk-medicinal aspects: Folk-medicinal uses as externally-applied remedies of the prepared leaf, the fresh juice, the concentrated sap, and a polysaccharide gum that exudes from the leaves and roots of certain species have been documented in the treatment of alopecia, bruises, haemorrhoids, wounds, and unspecified cutaneous eruptions. Ophthalmic uses have also been documented, but with no clear pattern of usage across traditions. Many of the uses are as might be expected for plants with irritant properties. • The genus Asparagus L. was at one time the only representative of the family (Brummitt 1992), having been moved out from its earlier position in the Liliaceae. The previously distinct families Herreriaceae and Ruscaceae were then brought into the Asparagaceae (Mabberley 1997) before molecular phylogenetic studies eventually prompted a re-organisation that has subsumed several further previously distinct familes, namely Agavaceae, Anthericaceae, Convallariaceae, Dracaenaceae, Eriospermaceae, Hyacinthaceae, and Laxmanniaceae into a much-expanded Asparagaceae (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group 2009, Chase et al. 2009). Some of the genera formerly considered to belong to the Agavaceae have been moved to the Asphodelaceae, a family until recently named the Xanthorrhoeaceae. Many members of this family of monocots are to be found in cultivation. A number are cultivated as ornamentals, for example members of the genera Bellevalia Lapeyr., Bowiea Harvey ex Hook.f., Chiondoxa Boiss., Clintonia Raf., Convallaria L., Cordyline Comm. ex R.Br., Dasylirion Zucc., Dracaena Vand. ex L. (formerly Sansevieria Thunb.), Eucomis L'Hér., Galtonia Decne., Hyacinthus Tourn. ex L., Ledebouria Roth, Muscari Mill., Ophiopogon Ker Gawl., Ornithogalum L., Polygonatum Mill., and Scilla L. Aspidistra elatior Blume was in earlier times a widely grown houseplant (Hunt 1968/70). Ruscus aculeatus L. (butcher's broom) is grown commercially for use in the floristry trade. Several species, including Agave fourcroydes Lem., Agave sisalana Perrine, and several Furcraea Vent. and Yucca L. species yield useful fibre (Purseglove 1972). Mezcal (or mescal), the popular liquor of Mexico, is a brandy distilled from the fermented mash of the cooked stems of certain wild and cultivated Agave L. species, especially Agave tequilana F.A.C.Weber (from which the mezcal known as tequila is produced), Agave angustifolia Haw. (syn. Agave pacifica Trel.), and Agave palmeri Engelm. The abundant sap obtained after cutting off the young flower buds of Agave atrovirens Karw. ex Salm-Dyck and possibly other species is fermented to produce an alcoholic beverage known as pulque from which mezcal may also be distilled (Purseglove 1972, Bahre & Bradbury 1980, Cedeño C 1995). Hecogenin, which is released by hydrolysis from the steroidal saponins of Agave sisalana, and sarsapogenin, which is similarly obtained from Yucca brevifolia Engelm., have been utilised as precursors in the production of medicinally-used steroids (Dewick 1997). Convallaria majalis L., a highly toxic plant, has a long history of use in Western and Eastern traditional medicine as a remedy for "dropsy" = cardiac failure (Felter & Lloyd 1898, Huang 1993, Leporatti & Ivancheva 2003). Many species have needle-sharp leaf-tips that are capable of inflicting mechanical injury (Oakes & Butcher 1962, Borup et al. 2003). The edges of the leaves of many species are also armed with thorns capable of inflicting mechanical injury. The following species are representative:
Hardin & Arena (1974) included century plants (Agave spp.) in a list of plants known or suspected to cause dermatitis. Prychid & Rudall (1999) reviewed the literature on the structure and distribution of calcium oxalate raphide crystals in Agave species. Concentrated maguey sap derived from Agave species, to which salt was traditionally added, was used by the Aztecs as an antibacterial application to wounds (Davidson & Ortiz de Montellano 1983). Shatoian & Golomozenko (1987) reported a case of allergic contact dermatitis following the use of an agave preparation for a therapeutic purpose.
According to Remington et al. (1918), the leaves of Agave americana are said to be used as counter-irritants. The skin of the leaf has also been described as irritant and has been used in parts of Africa as a rubefacient in rheumatism; the heated and split leaf has been applied for the same purpose (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). In Indian traditional medicine, the fresh juice of this plant is regarded as a good external application to bruises and contusions. The large fleshy leaves, when cut into slices, may also be used as a poultice, whilst the gum exuding from the leaves and root is used as a cure for toothache (Nadkarni 1976). According to Morton (1971), the sap of Agave picta is said to be particularly irritant, causing a burning rash. Anon (1905) reported that the sap or juice from a large Agave americana that a gardener and his assistants cut down using a small axe caused intense irritation of the hands. One of the assistants, who had incautiously rubbed his face and neck with his hand, suffered severely for a short time. This report was referred to by Maiden (1909b) and is probably the origin of subsequent references to the irritancy of this plant by Schwartz et al. (1957), McCord (1962), Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962), and Behl et al. (1966). Dorsey (1962) noted that he has seen a case of dermatitis caused by a "century plant". No further detail was provided. The use of a "cactus-juice" shampoo derived from this species caused dermatitis (Kerner et al. 1973); an open epicutaneous test with the sap produced contact urticaria followed by eczematous dermatitis. Closed patch tests produced severe reactions. Referring to Agave americana var. variegata, Brazzelli et al. (1995) provided a case report of a papulovesicular eruption of the face, neck, and arms in a 55-year old male who had cut the leaves of this plant. A patch test carried out with the juice from the leaves rapidly produced an erythematous reaction which, after some hours, became papulovesicular. Papulovesicular dermatitis in a series of 12 patients over a 4 month period was investigated by Brenner et al. (1998). Golan et al. (2000) reported a further similar case. The irritation had been caused by intentional exposure to the juice from the lower leaves of the plant, which had been vigorously rubbed onto the skin by the patients themselves who were soldiers seeking sick leave. The reactions were characterised by sudden onset and extreme itchiness. Several of these malingerers also complained of systemic symptoms including sore throat, headache, diarrhoea, or myalgia. Erythematous dermatitis was again reported by High (2003), who described a case that resulted from spattering of plant sap when the fleshy leaves were cut using a mechanical trimmer. Ricks et al. (1999) and Cherpelis & Fenske (2000) reported purpuric reactions in which systemic symptoms were also a feature. Crawford et al. (2003) provide a dermatologic cameo on Agave americana. Souder (1963) listed this species as a plant containing saponin and stinging crystals of calcium oxalate. These crystals of calcium oxalate are in the form of raphides without barbs or grooves, and are of a length [~200 µm] that is associated with a capacity to irritate the skin (Sakai et al. 1984). In addition, proteases present in the leaf (Du Toit 1976) are likely to contribute (along with the saponins) to the micro-trauma produced by the needle crystals of calcium oxalate when they penetrate the skin [see also, for example, Dieffenbachia seguine Schott, fam. Araceae]. According to Duke-Elder & MacFaul (1972b) the juice of the maguey plant may produce corneal injuries resembling lime [= calcium hydroxide] burns. They noted also that the [calcium] oxalate crystals found in the juice add to the chemical trauma by the abrasive effect of their sharply-angled crystals, evidently not appreciating the needle-like physical form of these crystals. The plant bears spine-tipped leaves that are capable of inflicting mechanical injury. Viegi et al. (2003) recorded that Agave americana is used for the treatment of [unspecified] skin problems in folk veterinary medicine in Italy.
The plant is cultivated for its fragrant flowers, from which tuberose absolute and other fragrance raw materials are prepared (Arctander 1960). Souder (1963) included Polianthes tuberosa in a list of agaves containing saponin and stinging crystals of calcium oxalate. The sap of this Mexican species has been described as caustic (Madinaveitia & Orozco D 1940, Kerner et al. 1973). According to Pennington (1958), the caustic properties of Agave bovicornuta are well known to the Tarahumar of Western Chihuahua, Mexico. The excrescence from leaves is used on sores; repeated applications tend to dry up festering sores.
This plant has been grown extensively in Yucatán in eastern Mexico for the commercial production of a fibre known as henequén, which resembles sisal [see Agave sisalana Perrine below]. Souder (1963) included Agave fourcroydes in a list of plants containing saponin and stinging crystals of calcium oxalate. However, Schwartz et al. (1957) noted that the leaves of the "henequin" plant which grows in Yucatán (and which they identified, perhaps erroneously, as the source of sisal) do not seem to contain any skin irritants. This species yields a commercially important fibre known variously as lechuguilla, istle, ixtle, Mexican fibre, or tampico. Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of irritant plants. In south-western United States and Mexico, ingestion (mainly during times of drought) of Agave lecheguilla has given rise in goats and sheep to photodermatitis accompanied by hepatic and renal damage. The condition is known as "swell-head" (Mathews 1937, Mathews 1938a, Mathews 1938b). Deposition of steroidal sapogenins in the bile ducts of affected animals is a feature of the toxicosis (Camp et al. 1988). The plant is used as a vesicant in Mexico (Díaz 1976). The sharp pointed leaves often penetrate leggins and leather shoes inflicting painful injuries (Pammel 1911).
In northern Morocco, the juice from the leaves of this species is used in folk medicine as a wash for skin diseases (El-Hilaly et al. 2003). This species yields a commercially important fibre known variously as sisal, sisal hemp, or Bahama hemp. According to McCord (1962), dermatitis is frequent in commercial sisal production. The raw sap of the plant is corrosive to metal and highly irritating to the eyes and skin. It causes an instant, stinging red rash in gardeners who have occasion to cut any part of the plant; it also affects factory workers exposed to the sap and the wet fibre in the process of extraction. The odour of sisal in mattresses, generally in combination with some other material, causes allergic reactions in sensitive individuals (Wilcox & McGeorge 1912). Kerner et al. (1973) also recorded that sap from this species has been found to have irritant properties. By contrast, Bhalme & Pasricha (1986) observed that the freshly exposed pulp of Agave sisalana, when rubbed 10 times on the forearms of 10 volunteers, produced a transient itching and burning in only one individual. Further, Bhalme & Pasricha (1986) observed delayed positive reactions in 2 out of 10 volunteers whom they patch tested with the pulped leaf of this plant; and positive patch test reactions to sisal have been reported by Poljacki et al. (1993). An occupational dermatosis caused by mouldy sisal was described by Faninger & Markovic-Brisk (1960). Salinas et al. (2001) provided a detailed account of the irritant contact dermatitis that affects workers in agave plantations and tequila distilleries. One third of workers in plantations complained of irritation ("mal de agaveros"), whereas 5 of every 6 workers handling agave stems in the distilleries were affected. The pressed juice from the leaves of the plant was found to contain 4000–6000 raphide crystals per ml, these being found responsible for the skin irritation. The raphide crystals varied in length from 30–500 µm, well exceeding the 180 µm identified by Sakai et al. (1984) as being the minimum length required to cause irritation. In addition, workers in the plantations may suffer mechanical injury from the spiny leaves of the agaves. Sap from this species has been found to have irritant properties (Kerner et al. 1973). Morton (1981) noted that the juice is irritant, causing an instant rash and stinging of the skin. Souder (1963) listed Agave vivipara as a plant containing saponin and stinging crystals of calcium oxalate.
Calcium oxalate raphides present in Ornithogalum caudatum (Tilton & Horner 1980) may cause intense irritation when the bulbs or leaves are handled (Pohl 1965). The 130 or so species of this genus are widely distributed over the Old World. Several species are of horticultural value, particularly as foliage for bouquets, e.g. Asparagus asparagoides (L.) Druce [syn. Asparagus medeoloides (L.f.) Thunb.], Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop [syn. Asparagus plumosus Baker], and Asparagus sprengeri Regel [= Asparagus densiflorus (Kunth) Jessop]. Thorny stems, which are capable of inflicting mechanical injury, are a characteristic of this genus.
The juice from the freshly collected and crushed cladodes [= leaf-like stems] of this climber are used in the traditional medicine of the Zay people in Ethiopia as an externally-applied remedy for [unspecified] skin lesions (Giday et al. 2003). The stems of this species are armed with thorns that can inflict mechanical injury. The young shoots are highly esteemed as a vegetable. Human exposure to this vegetable occurs frequently because it is an article of commerce. Schaffner (1903a) asserted that asparagus will sometimes blister the skin of those who work with it. The young shoots are highly esteemed as a vegetable and cultivators, canners and cooks handling them are exposed to the risk of dermatitis. According to Hurst (1942), Asparagus officinalis contains asparagin, coniferin and the glucoside of vanillin, but these are apparently not the sensitisers [see below]. Prolonged and repeated exposure is usually necessary to induce dermatitis. Possibly the first recorded cases (Güntz 1880) were two patients who prepared asparagus in a restaurant, who developed vesicular dermatitis of hands, arms, neck and face, and also conjunctivitis. In a case report, Brenning (1920) described a patient who had handled asparagus in a factory for 8 years before she developed dermatitis, the skin immediately beginning to redden and become covered with small nodules on an area where asparagus sap had run when being peeled; and a patient described by Schoenhof (1924) developed dermatitis only after 18 years. The tendency for all exposed skin to be affected to some degree and to be papular or vesicular was again demonstrated by Sternthal's (1925) patient. A vegetable cook in a large hotel (Urbach 1929) had an extensive dermatitis of hands, forearms and face, and gave bullous patch test reactions on the skin and on the gums. She developed itching and blisters after eating asparagus. However another woman with asparagus dermatitis could eat asparagus without discomfort (Courmont 1930). Dermatitis of the hands and arms developed in a worker on an asparagus farm (Hajos and Mohrmann 1929). Progressive desensitisation appeared to follow repeated application of the plant to the skin. In Brunswick, Germany, where much asparagus was grown and canned, dermatitis was well known to those engaged in the industry (Sternthal 1925). Halberg (1932) also reported cases in a canning factory; he obtained positive patch-test reactions with the juice, i.e. the fluid in which the asparagus had been cooked, but not with asparagin. It is only the young shoots which are tender and gastronomically desirable, and it is normally only these that are gathered and prepared. There is some evidence that only the young shoots cause dermatitis (Hardin & Arena 1974). A patient reported by Stewart (1972) reacted to young shoots but could handle the mature plants with impunity. Patch tests confirmed the clinical observations. Since asparagus is known to contain vanillin, the patient was also patch tested with balsam of Peru (from Myroxylon balsamum Harms, fam. Leguminosae); there was no reaction. The same author usefully confirmed that in normal subjects a patch test with young asparagus shoots provokes at the most a transitory irritant reaction.
Anon (1908) noted that:
However, it is not clear whether this observation refers to the taxon known at the time as Hyacinthus romanus L. or whether it refers to Hyacinthus orientalis L. ssp. orientalis [see below] to which the common name Roman hyacinth has also been [mis]applied.a
This plant is a native of south-eastern Africa. In the traditional medicine of this region, an infusion of the crushed bulb is used to prepare a lotion for sore eyes and for skin diseases (Hulme 1954). The dried bulb is irritating to damp skin (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
This is a popular cultivated flower that is frequently handled by florists and gardeners. The leaves appear to be mildly irritant (Muenscher 1951, McCord 1962). The flowers of this plant are the source of the crude drug Convallariae Flores, and the rhizome and roots are the source of Convallariae Radix, both of which were formerly official in many pharmacopoeias but which have now largely fallen out of use. They contain cardio-active glycosides, including convallarin, convalloside, and convallatoxin (Reynolds 1996). The crude drug is known as ling lan gen (铃兰根) in Chinese traditional medicine (Huang 1993). According to Felter & Lloyd (1898), the powdered flowers are sternutatory, and have been used in fomentations for the removal of ecchymosed spots caused by bruises. Remington et al. (1918) ascribe sternutatory properties to the powdered root.
Griffin & Maunwongyathi (1969) observed bundles of calcium oxalate needle-crystals (raphides) in the leaves of this species. The dimensions of the raphides were not reported [see also Dracaena reflexa var. angustifolia Baker below].
This commonly grown house plant is known to contain saponin. Its fresh juice is said to successfully treat skin ailments, eye strain, and particularly eye inflammation (Griffin & Maunwongyathi 1969). Perry & Metzger (1980) document a number of other folk-medicinal uses of this plant. For example, in Sumatra, the leaves warmed over a fire were placed on wounds inflicted by stinging fish; and on Tami Island in Oceania, the juice was dripped on cuts and bruises. Lynne-Davies & Mitchell (1974) applied portions of the fresh leaf of Cordyline terminalis to the backs of 2 males for 48 hours under occlusion. Neither irritant reactions nor delayed flares occurred. Griffin & Maunwongyathi (1969) observed bundles of calcium oxalate needle-crystals (raphides) in the leaves of this species. The dimensions of the raphides were not reported [see also Dracaena reflexa var. angustifolia Baker below]. Souder (1963) listed Cordyline stricta as a plant that contains saponin and minute stinging crystals of calcium oxalate. Griffin & Maunwongyathi (1969) observed that the leaves of this species do contain bundles of calcium oxalate raphides. The dimensions of the raphides were not reported [see also Dracaena reflexa var. angustifolia Baker below]. This a genus of 15 stemless or tree-like pachycauls, most of which bear spiny-edged leaves that are capable of inflicting mechanical injury (Mabberley 1997). The following species are representative:
The plants may be found in cultivation as ornamentals.
Souder (1963) included this species in a list of agaves that contain saponin and stinging crystals of calcium oxalate.
Perry & Metzger (1980) note that in south-eastern Asia, the sap from the leaves, mixed with grated coconut, has been smeared on the head to make the hair long and pliant.
The dried resin from this species provides the crude drug xue jie, also known as Dragon's Blood, used in traditional Chinese medicine. There is potential for confusion because resins of similar appearance and also named dragon's blood are also sourced from other species not only of Dracaena L. but of various botanically-unrelated plants including species of Daemonorops Blume in the plant family Palmae. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Kanerva et al. (2001) observed positive prick test reactions to the crushed leaves of this plant in 26 of 621 subjects tested.
Findlay (1962) noted that the upward-pointing hard leaves of Sansevieria deserti have sharp tips.
The leaves of this species contain bundles of calcium oxalate raphides, the individual crystals of which being sharply pointed at both ends, and measuring 40–50 µm in length and about 2 µm in diameter (Schmidt RJ 1981 — unpublished observation). Heisel & Hunt (1968), in a study of cutaneous reactions to glass fibres of different diameters, noted that fibres less than 18.0 × 10⁻⁵ in [= 4.5 µm) in diameter are not irritating to the skin, whilst Sakai et al. (1984) noted that raphides cause irritation only when they exceed 180 µm in length.
Perry & Metzger (1980) noted that the roasted leaves of Cordyline roxburghiana have been used as an emollient in Philippine folk medicine. Souder (1963) included Sansevieria roxburghiana in a list of agaves that contain saponin and stinging crystals of calcium oxalate. Bhalme & Pasricha (1986) observed delayed positive reactions in 2 out of 10 volunteers whom they patch tested with the juice of a plant described only as "Sansevieria zeylanica". Whilst Sansevieria zeylanica Roxb. is regarded as a synonym of Dracaena roxburghiana, Sansevieria zeylanica (L.) Willd. is a synonym of Dracaena zeylanica (L.) Mabb., a plant only rarely found in cultivation. And the names Sansevieria trifasciata zeylanica, a name of no botanical standing, and Sansevieria zeylanica are commonly seen in the horticultural trade,a,b,c being applied to a cultivar of Dracaena trifasciata (Prain) Mabb. [see below] with long strap-shaped leaves. Clearly, care needs to be exercised when interpreting literature reports in which the botanical identity of plant material referred to as Sansevieria zeylanica has not been properly established. Lynne-Davies & Mitchell (1974) applied portions of the fresh leaf of the gold-dust dracaena to the backs of 2 males for 48 hours under occlusion. Neither irritant reactions nor delayed flares occurred.
Many cultivars derived from this species are grown commercially for sale as house plants and as indoor foliage plants, including the very popular upright "goldband sansevieria" or "good luck plant" (Sansevieria trifasciata var. laurentii N.E.Br., syn. Sansevieria laurentii De Wild.) and the squat "birdnest sansevieria" or "dwarf snake plant" (Sansevieria trifasciata ‘Hahnii’, syn. Sansevieria hahnii hort.). Both of these were listed by Souder (1963) as agaves that contain saponin and stinging crystals of calcium oxalate. According to McCord (1962), who referred to the mother-in-law's tongue as a Sanseverinia species, the plants may cause dermatitis. He may not have been referring to Sansevieria trifasciata Prain. Lynne-Davies & Mitchell (1974) applied portions of the fresh leaf of Sansevieria trifasciata ‘Hahnii’ to the backs of 2 males for 48 hours under occlusion. Neither irritant reactions nor delayed flares occurred. There are about 120 species of Drimia, natives of the Mediterranean region, Africa and Asia (Mabberley 1997). Plants formerly considered to belong to the genus Urginea Steinh. are now classified as Drimia species.
In the traditional medicine of southern Africa, the fleshy scales of the bulb are heated and applied to gouty limbs and rheumatic swellings. The relief is probably due to the heat but may be due to irritation (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Citing earlier sources and referring to Drimia elata and Drimia ciliaris as separate taxa, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) noted that the bulb is highly irritant when handled, the irritation being ascribed to the presence of calcium oxalate raphides; and that the juice is said to blister the skin. This plant is the source of the crude drug Indian Squill, otherwise known as Urginea, which may be used as a substitute for Squill derived from Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn [see below]. According to Nadkarni (1976), powdered Indian squill is locally applied to remove warts. Behl et al. (1966) also refer to the skin irritant properties of Indian Squill.
This is the source of the crude drug Squill (otherwise known as White Squill or Scillae Bulbus), which has been used medicinally from a very early period (Stannard 1974). Squill contains the glycosides scillarin A and B, which resemble the cardiac glycosides found in digitalis (Gemmill 1974). These glycosides are poorly absorbed when administered orally. They have an expectorant effect in small doses and produce emesis in larger doses (Todd 1967). A red-coloured variety, which is found in northern Africa, is known as red squill. It has long been used as a rat poison (Todd 1967). Schwartz et al. (1947) documented the belief held by some authorities that the juice of Scilla rubra is a cutaneous irritant to everyone, whilst contact with the leaves irritates only sensitised individuals. In a study of the use of medicinal plants in the Palestinian West Bank region, Ali-Shtayeh et al. (2000) recorded that Urginea maritima was a popular remedy for treating skin disorders; no detail as to the method of use nor the nature of the skin disorders treated was provided. Pereira (1842) recorded that fresh Squilla maritima bulb, when applied to the skin, causes irritation, inflammation, even vesication — attributes also noted by Chevalier (1933) and by Schwartz et al. (1947). Powdered squill can cause severe keratoconjunctivitis and iritis (Achermann 1928, Duke-Elder & MacFaul 1972b, Grant 1974). Biberstein (1927) observed a positive patch test reaction to this plant (which he identified as Scilla maritima) in a young child who reacted also to an unidentified species of Tradescantia L. (fam. Commelinaceae) and to a plant believed to be Lamium galeobdolon L. (fam. Labiatae). Touton (1932) referred to other reports (Hoffmann 1904a, Hoffmann 1904b, etc.) in the early German literature of dermatitis attributable to the topical use of the leaves or crushed bulbs of Scilla maritima to treat skin conditions, drawing attention to the possible contribution made by calcium oxalate raphides to the skin reaction produced by the plant. He referred also to cases of occupational dermatitis in a factory handling crude drugs.
Githens (1949) listed the root of Urginea burkei as being rubefacient; Watt & Breyer Brandwijk (1962) noted that the cut bulb is highly irritant to the skin. Referring to Urginea sanguinea, which has been used in Africa to prepare arrow poison, Watt & Breyer Brandwijk (1962) noted also that those who handle the bulb during the process of preparing the poison develop an irritant rash on the hands; however, if the hands are washed immediately, the rash disappears.
This species yields a once commercially important fibre known as fique or Mauritius hemp. According to Schwartz et al. (1957), fique fieldworkers suffer from wounds, scratches and infections from the sharp fronds and from irritation of the juice of the plants. Souder (1963) included Furcraea gigantea in a list of plants that contain saponin and minute stinging crystals of calcium oxalate.
In traditional Chinese medicine, this plant provides the crude drugs Herba Hostae Plantagineae, Flos Hostae Plantagineae, and Radix Hostae Plantagineae.a The expressed juice from the root of Funkia subcordata (yu zan hua 玉簪花; bai he xian 白鶴仙) is considered to be a counter poison to infectious abscesses and cancerous sores; the bruised leaves are applied in insect bites; and the flowers (from which a fragrant oil may be distilled for use as a perfume) are added to prescriptions for the treatment of skin diseases and wounds (Stuart 1911). The three species in this horticulturally important genus are natives of the region between Turkey and Turkmenistan. By far the most popular species cultivated for indoor and outdoor decoration is Hyacinthus orientalis L., the so-called common hyacinth, which was first developed by artificial selection in Turkey and subsequently in Holland (Gorer 1970).
Bulb growers are often aware that some cultivars of Hyacinthus orientalis are more likely to cause trouble than others: ‘Marconi’, ‘Carnegie’, and ‘City of Harlem’ were considered particularly liable to cause dermatitis, with the white-flowered cultivar ‘L'Innocence’ being described by van der Werff (1959) as the most malignant. Experiments reported by Morris (1897), corroborated by Scott (1897), had demonstrated that both dry and moist scales from the bulbs of the common hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis and varieties) were capable of producing considerable irritation when applied directly to the skin. This irritation was caused, evidently, by calcium oxalate raphides varying from 1/100 to 1/200th of an inch [= 250–125 µm) in length. Roman hyacinths (variety albulus) were understood to cause greater irritation than other varieties [see also Bellevalia romana (L.) Sweet above]. About 6% of calcium oxalate is present in bulb scales and a similar concentration has been found in the dust on tables used for sorting and packing (Hjorth and Wilkinson 1968). Hyacinths also probably contain allergenic substances, which have not been identified. Fungi, parasites, fungicides and pesticides must also be considered (van der Werff 1959). Oil of Hyacinth, which is used in perfumes, has caused allergic dermatitis (von Varga 1936). Hyacinthin is phenylacetaldehyde (Furia & Bellanca 1971). Oil of Hyacinth contains some known sensitisers. Schwartz et al. (1947) described hyacinths, and especially the Dutch hyacinth as a cause of occupational dermatitis in florists and others who handle the bulbs. Harrison (1906) included Hyacinthus orientalis in a list of plants that may cause dermatitis. McCord (1962) also referred to hyacinths as a cause of occupational dermatitis. Hyacinth bulb dermatitis is predominantly of irritant type, and is very familiar to nurserymen. However the irritant properties of the bulbs are such that it is often difficult to confirm the suspected coexistence of allergic dermaitis, sometimes suggested by the clinical features. The commonest clinical picture is dry fissured scaling and erythema of the finger tips, often with hyperkeratosis beneath the nails (Kranenburg 1930, Johnson 1935). Sometimes a more extensive eczematous dermatitis involves hands, arms and face (Freeman 1897). Dust contaminated with oxalate crystals can pass beneath clothing and cause irritable patchy erythema and oedema, often most marked around the waist and in the anogenital region (van der Werff 1959). Patch tests with bulb scales should be interpreted with caution. A positive patch test to a fragment of leaf is probably evidence of sensitisation.
Referring to Scilla lanceaefolia, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) recorded that in the traditional medicine of southern Africa, the bulb is used as a local irritant. They noted also that an infusion prepared from the plant is used to bathe skin eruptions, and that the burnt and powdered plant is applied in an ointment to wounds and sores.
Referring to Scilla natalensis, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) noted that in the traditional medicine of southern Africa, a hot lotion made by boiling the cut-up bulb in water is used as an application to boils and veld sores. Rankins et al. (1993) dosed sheep intraruminally with the inflorescences from this species in order to characterise more fully the toxicosis they produce. Severe hepatotoxicosis was produced, which became evident as severe photosensitisation. However, photosensitisation did not occur in every case. The authors concluded that photosensitisation was not a reliable indicator of sacahuista toxicosis even in white-faced sheep in direct sun. See also Nolina texana S.Watson below.
When the flower buds, blooms and fruits are grazed by cattle, goats or sheep, hepatotoxicosis accompanied by icterus, an itching photodermatitis with associated swelling of the skin and subcutaneous tissues of the head, and renal damage may develop. Almost all animals developing signs of hepatotoxicity will eventually die. Goats seem to be more susceptible than sheep. The foliage is also grazed, but appears not to be poisonous. Saponins present in the plant are believed to be the toxic agents (Mathews 1937, Mathews 1940). The common name sacahuista is also applied to Nolina microcarpa S.Watson [see above] and to Nolina nelsonii Rose. Muenscher (1951) notes that this plant has caused irritant dermatitis. About 200 species are distributed over Europe, Asia and Africa (Mabberley 1997). Many are decorative and are frequently grown as ornamentals, including Ornithogalum umbellatum L. (star of Bethlehem), Ornithogalum pyrenaicum L. (Bath asparagus; spiked star of Bethlehem), and Ornithogalum thyrsoides Jacq.
According to Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962), handling of the above-ground parts of the plant produces inflammation of the skin and wheals, possibly only in persons who have become sensitive.
In Western traditional medicine, a decoction prepared from the roots of this species has been used similarly to one prepared from Polygonatum odoratum Druce [see below]. According to Wren (1975) the powdered root makes an excellent poultice for bruises, piles, inflammations and tumours. In traditional Chinese medicine, the dried root (Radix Polygoni Multiflori) is known variously as shou wu pian, ho shou wu, he shou wu, and ho shao wu. It is considered to have tonic and anti-ageing properties, being able to restore colour to grey hair. It is also reputed to be beneficial in alopecia, being included in multi-ingredient herbal formulations for oral administration (for example shengfa wan and shengfa yin) or for topical application (for example suxiao ketuling shengfa jing). The results of trials using these three named formulations have been published in the Chinese medical literature — see Jiang (1987), Lan & Chen (1988), and Zhang (1991) respectively. Cases of acute hepatitis following the oral use of shou wu pian have been reported in the Western medical literature — see Park et al. (2001).
Pereira (1842) noted that the fresh rhizome of Convallaria polygonatum is a popular application to bruised parts (the eye, for example) to remove the marks. Remington et al. (1918) also referred to this use, adding that in former times a decoction of the root was used externally for tumours, wounds, and cutaneous eruptions. In the more recent literature, Leporatti & Ivancheva (2003) record that in both Bulgarian and Italian traditional medicine, preparations of the root and rhizome of Polygonatum odoratum are used externally for their astringent and anti-inflammatory activity. According to Felter & Lloyd (1898), the rhizomes of various Polygonatum species, including Polygonatum multiflorum All. [see above] and Polygonatum officinale, provide the crude drug Solomon's Seal. They noted that "In erysipelas and cutaneous affections of an erysipelatous nature, as well as those maladies of the skin produced by the poison-vine [probably poison ivy; see Toxicodendron radicans Kuntze, fam. Anacardiaceae], or resulting from the poisonous exhalations of other plants, the decoction of Solomon's seal root will afford direct relief, and an ultimate cure." It is not clear whether they refer to internal or external use. Felter & Lloyd (1898) go on to note that "[the decoction] may also be applied externally, with advantage, to local inflammations." They also mention the internal and external use of the root or a decoction prepared from it in the treatment of piles.
Ruscus Aculeatus Root Extract [INCI; CAS RN 84012-38-4; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]a is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have astringent, refreshing, skin conditioning, soothing, and tonic properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). [Further information available but not yet included in database] There are 40 species, natives of Europe, Asia and temperate regions of Africa (Mabberley 1997). Many are grown as ornamentals, including Scilla bifolia L., Scilla mischtschenkoana Grossh., Scilla peruviana L. (Cuban lily), and Scilla siberica Andrews.
According to Pammel (1911), this species is irritant.
Triteleia Ixioides Extract and Triteleia Ixioides Flower Extract [INCI; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)] are recognised cosmetic product ingredients, the former purported to have antioxidant, antistatic, skin conditioning, and emollient properties, the latter having a fragrancing function (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). These plants have needle-sharp leaf-tips that are capable of inflicting mechanical injury and which in or near bone may excite a reaction that simulates a neoplasm (Maylahn 1952). These spines can cause injury to grazing cattle (Migaki et al. 1969).
Eye injury has been caused by the short black spine at the leaf tip (Morton 1977). Kanerva et al. (2001) observed positive skin prick tests to this plant in two individuals who presented with occupational contact urticaria. In a further series of 600 patients, positive prick test reactions were observed in about 6% of those tested.
Munno et al. (2001) reported a case from Italy of an adult male who developed acute urticaria-angioedema of the face and the neck and rhinoconjunctivitis after trimming this yucca, evidently induced by contact with airborne yucca leaf particulates. Positive prick test reactions to preparations of the leaves but not the flowers were obtained. No reaction was observed in 10 control subjects. The leaf of this species terminates in a sharp spine that can cause mechanical injury.
Referring to Yucca elephantipes, Dahlgren & Standley (1944) note that the plant bears spine-tipped leaves. Souder (1963) included this species in a list of agaves containing saponin and stinging crystals of calcium oxalate. References
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