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PLUMBAGINACEAE(Sea Lavender family)
The Plumbaginaceae are split into two very distinct sub-families, the Plumbaginoideae (plants with monomorphic pollen; principal genera Plumbago Tourn. ex L. and Ceratostigma Bunge) and the Limonioideae or Staticoideae (plants with dimorphic pollen; principal genera Acantholimon Boiss., Armeria Willd., and Limonium Mill.) (Mabberley 2017). Plumbagin, an orange-yellow naphthoquinone also known as 2-methyljuglone, was reported by Harborne (1967) to be present in the roots of all 10 taxa he examined from the Plumbaginoideae, but was absent from the roots of all 48 taxa examined from the Staticoideae. Harborne (1967) observed that since root tissue containing plumbagin is normally colourless, plumbagin evidently occurs mainly in a bound form, possibly as a plumbagin monoglycoside. Indeed, a plumbagin monoglucoside named plumbaside A, co-occurring with plumbagin, has been isolated and characterised from air-dried Ceratostigma minus Stapf (Yue et al. 1994). Harborne (1967) further noted that plumbagin is liberated from root tissue by acid treatment, perhaps alluding to a method involving boiling of coarsely pulverised roots in acidulated water (2% H2SO4) that was used by Salih Hisar (1954) to obtain crystalline plumbagin.
Referencing earlier literature, Schulz et al. (1977) noted that plumbagin has a pungent smell and irritates mucosae, colours the skin pale yellow to black, and produces bullae. Salih Hisar (1954) carried out tests on his own arm using coarsely ground "Babink's" or "Babini" root (unidentified botanically) wetted with water when investigating the possibility that this material had been used to simulate bruising in a case of alleged violence involving assault and battery. A few minutes after applying the roots to the skin, a tingling sensation was felt, then local heat, the intensity of which gradually increased. This became very painful and almost unbearable after an hour and a half. On the third day, the spot becomes covered with small vesicles full of liquid, the heat and the local pain always remaining very acute. After removing the plant material from the skin, a very dark purple area was seen on the skin. The same bruise-like mark accompanied by considerable pain and followed later by vesication was produced by an orange-yellow crystalline material isolated from the Babini root. This crystalline material was later identified as plumbagin (Salih Hisar & Wolff 1955, Thomson 1971), a finding pointing to the possibility that the Babini root was the root from a species of Plumbago. Further investigation of the effect on the skin of the crystalline material subsequently identified as plumbagin was described by Salih Hisar (1954) as follows: wet crystals, applied to the skin are absorbed in a few minutes and leave a dark yellow stain. The yellow colour slowly disappears. Five hours after application, a tingling sensation is felt then a local heat which continues all night. The next day, a dark purple coloration develops, similar to a bruise. Vesication and blistering follows, with crusting. As the lesion heals, the new skin beneath appears pinkish brown, the colour taking a month to disappear. Plumbagin is also found in some species of the families Dionchophyllaceae, Droseraceae, Ebenaceae, and Peraceae. References can also be found in the literature and online to a substance named ophioxylin, a partially characterised crystalline substance resembling juglone, isolated from Ophioxylon serpentinum L., fam. Apocynaceae (Wefers Bettink 1888). It was quite quickly recognised that ophioxylin was in fact plumbagin, it having been determined that the plant material must have been misidentified: the roots investigated by Wefers Bettink where not of Ophioxylon serpentinum but [probably] of Plumbago rosea L. (see Greshoff 1890). Plumbago rosea L. is now regarded as a synonym of Plumbago indica L. [see below]. This provides an early example of the importance of proper botanical authentication when carrying out research involving plant material. [Summary yet to be added] [Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
Plumbagin, a naphthoquinone with vesicant properties [see above], has been reported from this species (Thomson 1971). Plumbagin, a naphthoquinone with vesicant properties [see above], has been reported from this species (Thomson 1971). [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Because of its astringent properties, the root has been used in external preparations for the treatment of haemorrhoids (Wren 1975).
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] One species is found in Central Asia. This species yields plumbagin (Morton 1971, Shcherbanovskii 1974). Twelve species are found in warm regions. One species was thought to be a remedy for lead poisoning, hence the scientific and common names. Plants of this genus have vesicant properties (Burkill 1935). The presence of the vesicant naphthoquinone plumbagin in the roots and aerial parts of Dyerophytum africanum was reported by van der Vijver (1972).
Lewis (1922) reported a case in which a woman giving birth was rubbed all over with the ground bark of an unidentified plumbago described only as "indigenous to the Eastern Cape", seemingly in the belief that this treatment would ensure the good health of the child, but with fatal results. It was further noted that the bark was found to contain the irritant principle plumbagin. Morton (1962a) asserted that contact with the roots, leaves and stems of Plumbago capensis Thunb., but especially the root, may blister the skin of sensitive individuals. The roots yield plumbagin (Thomson 1971, van der Vijver 1972). This species yields plumbagin (Thomson 1971). The plant reddens and vesicates healthy skin (Piffard 1881) and has been used as a counter-irritant (Burkill 1935). The plant was formerly used by beggars in southern Europe to produce sores on the skin with the intention of inciting pity. The roots, leaves and flowers yield plumbagin (Harbourne 1966, Thomson 1971).
The plant is mentioned by Sanskrit writers as a vesicant. The root is used in several caustic preparations, particularly by malingerers (Behl et al. 1966, Quisumbing 1951). Waring (1883), to whom Piffard (1881) referred, noted that the bark from the fresh root of Plumbago rosea is of great value as a means of raising a blister. The chief objection … is the great pain it occasions. The dried roots are less active than the fresh root (Burkill 1935). [Further information available but not yet included in database] The roots and aerial parts of this species yield plumbagin (van der Vijver 1972). The plant has a vesicant and caustic effect (Martínez 1969). This species yields plumbagin (Harborne 1967, Thomson 1971).
In ancient Sanscrit and Mohammedan literature, this plant is described as vesicant for the skin. Piffard (1881) noted that the root of Plumbago scandens has a vesicant action on healthy skin. The leaves and roots have a vesicant and caustic effect on the skin (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Irvine 1961, Chopra 1933, Quisumbing 1951). The plant is employed in the same manner as cantharides. The root is ground with a little flour and water and applied to the skin. In five minutes there is a pricking sensation; in 15 minutes pain and after 12 to 15 hours a bulla forms. The pain associated with the blistering is greater than that from application of cantharides (Burkill 1935). The plant is used as an abortefacient by introducing it into the vagina to produce an irritant action (Burkill 1935) and is used in India by malingerers (Chopra 1933). Masai girls of southern Africa use the irritant effect of the plant to produce postinflammatory hyperpigmentation for cosmetic purposes as did the natives of Hawai‘i (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). The plant yields plumbagin (Harborne 1967, Thomson 1971). The roots of Plumbago scandens yield plumbagin (de Paiva et al. 2004). [Further information available but not yet included in database] References
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