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RANUNCULACEAE(Buttercup family)
• Medicinal / Folk-medicinal aspects: The use of poultices, liniments, ointments etc. prepared from any one of several species as remedies for neuralgia, sciatica, arthritic joint pain and similar affections has often been documented. The plants used include both aconitine-containing species and protoanemonin-releasing species. • According to Mabberley (2008), this family comprises 2100 species in 56 genera distributed through temperate and boreal regions. Many are lianes, others form small shrubs, but most are herbs. The principal genera are Aconitum L. [about 100 spp.], Anemone L. [about 150 spp.], Aquilegia L. [80 spp.], Clematis L. [about 323 spp.], Delphinium L. [about 320 spp.], Ranunculus L. [about 600 spp.], and Thalictrum L. (120–200 spp.). Turnbull (1838) noted that many members of the family are acrid and caustic in the highest degree. Very many are grown as ornamentals for their colourful flowers. Hundreds of named cultivars of large-flowered climbing clematis, the so-called Jackman cultivars, have been produced from a cross originally made between Clematis lanuginosa Lindl. and the Henderson's clematis (Clematis hendersonii hort. ex Steud.), itself believed to be a cross between Clematis viticella L. and Clematis integrifolia L. The result was Clematis × jackmanii T.Moore. Other members of the family are grown as hardy annuals, biennials, and perennials, as aquatics, and as alpines, the following genera being most commonly represented in cultivation (Hunt 1968/70):
Some species of Ranunculus L. in particular can become invasive weeds. Therefore, the potential for human contact with these plants is very high.
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This species was formerly official in many pharmacopoeias, providing Aconitum, Aconiti Folia, Aconiti Radix, etc. With moderately toxic oral doses, there is a tingling of the tongue, mouth, stomach, and skin, followed by numbness and anaesthesia. When applied to the skin, aconite produces tingling followed by numbness. Aconite liniments (Linimentum Aconiti Radicis; Linimentum Aconiti Compositum) were formerly being used extensively in the treatment of neuralgia, sciatica, and rheumatism. The principal active constituent is aconitine, an alkaloid, which was at one time used to prepare an ointment (Unguentum Aconitinae) used to treat neuralgia (Martindale & Westcott 1924). Piffard (1881) noted that Aconitum has proved useful when applied locally in the treatment of pruritus and acne. Aconite and aconitine are no longer used in Western medicine because of the serious risk of possibly fatal poisoning. According to Piffard (1881), erysipelatous inflammation, redness and vesicles, and tingling and numbness of the sensory nerves may result from skin contact with Aconitum. Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Referring to wolfsbane, probably this species, Gerarde (1636) noted that "the symptoms that follow those that do eate of these deadly herbs are these: their lips and tongues swell forthwith, their eyes hang out, their thighs are stiffe, and their wits are taken from them." He identified this wolfsbane as Aconitum lycoctonum flore Delphinii bearing blue flowers like those of larkspur, with black stamens, and having a "thicke and knobby root". [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] Piffard (1881) noted that Aconitum neomontanum Willd., when applied to the skin, is vesicant. [Information available but not yet included in database] Weber (1930 & 1937) included Actaea alba in lists of irritant plants of the United States. Schwartz et al. (1957) included Actaea alba in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers.
This plant was formerly official in various pharmacopoeias, providing Cimicifuga, otherwise known as Actaeae Racemosae Radix. The name Macrotys or Macrotrys was also applied. Although historically it had a high reputation for treating rheumatism and neuralgia, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, and for promoting uterine contractions during childbirth (Felter & Lloyd 1898), it has in recent times been investigated mainly as a remedy for treating menopausal symptoms (Foster 1999). [Further information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the chewed leaves are spit on boils and on wounds (Turner 1984). [Further information available but not yet included in database]
The rhizome provides the crude drug Radix Christophoriana (Remington et al. 1918). A decoction of the green root, used locally, destroys lice, fleas, and the itch insect [= scabies ?] (Felter & Lloyd 1898). According to Piffard (1881), the crude drug applied to intact healthy skin may produce vesication. Weber (1930, 1937) subsequently included this species in lists of irritant plants of the United States. [Further information available but not yet included in database] This genus comprises 26 species found in temperate Eurasia (Mabberley 2008). Adonis vernalis L. and other species contain cardiac glycosides and have been used in traditional medicine for their digitalis-like action on the heart (Wren 1988). Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. [Further information available but not yet included in database] According to Mabberley (2008), the genus comprises about 150 species distributed through Eurasia, Sumatra, South & East Africa, and North America to Chile. Gerarde (1636) noted that "All the kindes of Anemones are sharpe, biting the tongue; … "
[Information available but not yet included in database] Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. [Further information available but not yet included in database] Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. A poultice made of the plant and probably also of Anemone multifida Poir. [see below] causes violent blistering when applied to the skin for 10–20 minutes (Turner & Bell 1973). [Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the fresh leaves are used as a poultice for sores, swellings, bruises, etc., being left on for only a few minutes. They are also used to plug the nose to stop nose bleeds. A strong decoction of the plant is used to kill fleas and lice (Turner 1984). [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Pammel (1911) listed the plant as being irritant, citing a number of earlier texts. Piffard (1881) noted that local application to healthy skin can produce redness, vesicles, and ulcers. Bulliard (1784) also referred to the irritancy of this species. White (1887) stated that he had not known this plant to cause trouble to anyone handling it although it was of wide occurrence and one of the earliest and most plucked wildflowers of spring. [Further information available but not yet included in database] This species is probably the plant to which the name Anemone obtusifolia, a name of no botanical standing but used by several authors, actually refers. Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described the plant as vesicant. In Indian traditional medicine, the pounded root is used externally as a blistering agent but is apt to produce sores and scars (Nadkarni 1976, Behl et al. 1966). [Information available but not yet included in database]
Weber (1930, 1937) included this species in lists of irritant plants, and Schwartz et al. (1957) included Anemone quinquifolia [sic] in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
The species is listed as being irritant by Pammel (1911). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] The species is listed as being irritant by Pammel (1911). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the chewed leaves are spit on sores, and the pulp scraped from the roots is smeared on sores. Also, a decoction of the whole plant is used to wash the hair and scalp (Turner 1984). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] The species is listed as being irritant by Pammel (1911). Schwartz et al. (1957) included columbines in general (Aquilegia spp.) in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the chewed leaves are spit on wounds, or crushed and placed on as a poultice to reduce pain and inflammation (Turner 1984). [Further information available but not yet included in database] Pammel (1911) noted that the plant yields an acrid oil identical with that from Ranunculus. Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. According to Behl et al. (1966), the juice is acrid and vesicant; and sniffing the bruised stems induces sneezing. Prosser White (1934) referred to a case of skin irritation in a girl who dressed her knee with a marsh marigold instead of marsh mallows. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
The plant name was originally published as Ceratocephalus falcatus, but plant nomenclature rules now hold that this is not the correct form to use. Nevertheless, many authors continue to refer to the plant using this name. Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described Ranunculus falcatus as vesicant. Behl et al. (1966) noted that Ranunculus falcatus is used in the same way as Ranunculus arvensis L. [see below]. [Further information available but not yet included in database] The genus comprises about 323 species found mainly in northern temperate regions, with a few occurring in southern temperate regions, Oceania, and on mountains in tropical regions of Africa (Mabberley 2008). All the species of the genus are acrid and irritant (White 1887). Pammel (1911), citing various earlier authors, listed a number of species as acrid, irritant, or vesicant including:
Others are considered in the monographs below. Lloyd in White (1887) stated that "in working Clematis for anemonin, our hands were blistered several times". [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] This hybrid derives from Clematis heracleifolia DC. × Clematis stans Siebold & Zucc. Several named cultivars are available from nurseries. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
If the stem is bruised and sniffed, sneezing is induced on account of the pungency of the plant. When chewed, the leaf produces a burning sensation in the mouth (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] In traditional Chinese medicine, the roots and rhizomes of this species — but possibly also those of Clematis brachyura Maxim., Clematis hexapetala Pall. (syn. Clematis angustifolia Jacq.), Clematis terniflora DC. (syns. Clematis terniflora var. robusta (Carrière) Tamura, Clematis terniflora DC. var. koreana (Nakai) Tamura), Clematis terniflora DC. var. mandshurica (Rupr.) Ohwi, Clematis uncinata Champ. ex Benth. (syn. Clematis alsomitrifolia Hayata), and perhaps other species — provide the crude drug known variously as wei ling xian (威霊仙; 威灵仙) [Chinese], ireisen (イレイセン) [Japanese], wiryongseon (위령선) [Korean], Radix et Rhizoma Clematidis, Radix Clematidis Chinensis, or Clematis Chinensis Root, a decoction of which may be taken internally for its analgesic, diuretic, and antibacterial effects or applied to swollen tissues (Namba & Mikage 1983, Mikage & Namba 1983a, 1983b, 1983c, 1983d, Huang 1993). The crude drug is usually combined with several other ingredients when preparing remedies (see American Herbal Pharmacology Delegation 1975), so if adverse drug reactions occur in patients to whom these remedies have been prescribed, it may not be possible to identify the causative ingredient(s) without carrying out provocation / patch tests with all the ingredients separately (Wong 2002, Xu et al. 2019). Contact with the fresh plant material for 10 hours caused erythema, bullae, burning pain, and systemic symptoms, the disease condition lasting for 6 days (Wang et al. 2001). In another case, where the fresh plant material was applied to treat wrist pain, the patient developed a central area of leukoderma surrounded by [post-inflammatory ?] hyperpigmentation (Tan et al. 2008). The roots are rich in triterpenoid saponins, mainly oleanolic-type and hederagenin-type, most of which are bidesmosidic saponins, substituted with oligosaccharide chains at both C-3 and C-28, some being substituted with acetyl, caffeoyl, isoferuloyl, p-methoxy cinnamyl, and 3,4-dimethoxy cinnamyl groups in the oligosaccharides chains (Chawla et al. 2012). Shao et al. (1995) noted that protoanemonin and anemonin have been "obtained" from this species but provided no further detail. Clematis Chinensis Root Extract [INCI] is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
[Information available but not yet included in database] According to Allen (1943), the crushed leaves will blister the skin, and proximity to the plant can cause dermatitis in susceptible individuals. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
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Pammel (1911) listed Clematis florida as being irritant. [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] This Australian species produces vesication on prolonged contact with the skin and is irritant to the nasal passages if inhaled (Hurst 1942, Everist 1972). [Further information available but not yet included in database] The juice of freshly crushed leaves and stems has a vesicant action (Pammel 1911, Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Nadkarni 1976, Behl et al. 1966). [Further information available but not yet included in database] The juice of the plant is irritant (Dalziel 1937) and the leaves are used as a vesicant in West Africa (Irvine 1961). Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described the plant as blistering. The juice of freshly crushed leaves and stems of Clematis triloba Heyne has vesicant properties (Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Behl et al. 1966). Irvine (1961) noted that the leaves have a blistering effect and that the juice is more or less vesicant. He noted also that in West African traditional medicine, the juice is applied externally to skin diseases. Applications of the powdered roots and leaves are also used. The root, prepared as a poultice, has been used in Tanganyika [now Tanzania] for "drawing" septic lesions (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Referring to a plant collection identified as "Clematis, 313", Geyer (1846) remarked that the scraped root leaves a burning sensation for half a day if touched with the tongue. Clematis, 313 was subsequently identified by Hooker (1847) as Clematis douglasii. This plant, which has been used by the Nez Perce and Teton Sioux nations as a horse stimulant (Geyer 1846, Morgan 1981), yields anemonin, a dilactone derived from the spontaneous cyclodimerisation of protoanemonin, an exceedingly vesicant oil that produces severe erythema and blistering of the skin (Kern & Cardellina 1983). In an earlier study, Ruijgrok (1966) reported the presence of a high level of ranunculin (the precursor of protoanemonin) in an extract prepared from, and a high level of protoanemonin in a steam distillate obtained from Clematis hirsutissima. See also Ranunculus L. below. Interestingly, the species to which Geyer (1846) was referring was identified [erroneously ?] by Stannard & Crowder (2003-2006) as Clematis ligusticifolia Nutt., the western clematis [see below]. [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
According to Train et al. (1957), the stems have been used by Nevada Indians as a counter-irritant by whipping sore or painful areas. Also, the mashed leaves, sometimes combined with the leaves of Plantago major L. (fam. Plantaginaceae), have been used as a poultice for rheumatic pains, bruises, wounds, swellings, and boils. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, a decoction of the stems and leaves have been used as a hair restorer, as a head wash for scabs and eczema, as an eyewash, and for sores and itchiness. The leaves rubbed together in water form a lather, which has been used as a general soap or for skin sores and boils on men and on animals (Turner 1984). Bai et al. (1996) detected no ranunculin in the aerial parts of this plant. See also Ranunculus L. below.
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] Gardner & Bennetts (1956) included this species in a list of plants known or suspected of causing dermatitis, probably from Cleland (1931) who noted that the natives of the Encounter Bay region of Australia are said to have known of the capacity of this plant to produce inflammation of the skin. Poultices of the crushed leaves were used by European settlers as counter-irritants for rheumatic joints. Applied for too long (e.g. seven instead of three minutes), such poultices may cause irritation leading to blistering after 12 hours (Cleland & Lee 1963). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] The juice of freshly crushed leaves and stems of this species has vesicant properties (Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Nadkarni 1976, Behl et al. 1966).
[Information available but not yet included in database] The juice of freshly crushed leaves and stems of this species has vesicant properties (Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Behl et al. 1966). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
Brooker & Cooper (1961a, 1961b) recorded that in traditional New Zealand medicine, the leaves are applied to produce blisters as a counter irritant. Some authors refer incorrectly to "Clematis erecta", a name of no botanical standing. Thus, Piffard (1881), referring to Clematis erecta, noted that application of the crude drug to intact healthy skin may produce vesicles and ulcers. He noted also that local application has proven useful in the treatment of cancerous ulcers. The plant has been used as a vesicant (Turnbull 1838). This species provides the crude drug Clematis, formerly official in the US Dispensatory. The leaves and flowers have an acrid, burning taste. When bruised in a mortar they irritate the eyes and throat, giving rise to a flow of tears and to coughing, and applied to the skin they produce inflammation and vesication; hence their old name of Flammula Jovis. The acridity is greatly diminished by drying (Remington et al. 1918). [Further information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] Referring to Clematis sinensis [sic], Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) citing Githens (1949) recorded that in the Congo, the leaf is used as a counter irritant. They also recorded that the root, prepared as a poultice, has been used for "drawing" septic lesions. [Information available but not yet included in database]
Stuart (1911), who identified Clematis paniculata as the source of the Chinese crude drug hsien jen tsao (仙人草), was probably referring to this species. He noted that in Chinese traditional medicine, a decoction of this plant has been used to wash scrofulous ulcers in children, and the expressed juice has been used in the treatment of corneal opacities. Clematis terniflora has also been identified in samples of the crude drug wei ling xian (威霊仙; 威灵仙) from Korea (Mikage & Namba 1983b) and from Japan (Namba & Mikage 1983), wei ling xian normally being regarded as having been produced from Clematis chinensis [see above]. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Weber (1930, 1937) was most probably referring to this species when he included Clematis virginica L. (a name of no botanical standing) in lists of irritating plants of the United States. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Pammel (1911) listed this species as irritant. Piffard (1881) also noted that application of the plant material to the skin may produce redness, vesication and ulcers. [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
Pammel (1911) listed Delphinium ajacis L. as being irritant. Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) assert that the powdered seeds have been used since antiquity for destruction of body parasites. A fluid extract prepared from the plant, which is used as a parasiticide in India, produced local irritation (Chopra et al. 1958). Both leaf and seed have been recorded as producing dermatitis (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Behl et al. 1966). Schwartz et al. (1957) included Delphinium ajacia [sic] in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
The seeds were at one time official in the US Pharmacopoeia as Semen Consolidae Regalis. A tincture prepared from the seeds has been recommended for destroying lice in the hair Wren (1988). An extract prepared from Delphinium consolida was vesicant (Van Hasselt & Henkel 1862) and a specific element in the seeds produces in tincture great burning and inflammation of the skin (Oesterlen 1856). Schwartz et al. (1957) included Delphinium consolida in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
In traditional Chinese medicine, the plant is pounded and applied as a poultice to boils (Perry & Metzger 1980). The Chinese crude drug huang lian (川连; 黄连), otherwise known as Rhizoma Coptidis, is derived from the rhizome of this plant. In the treatment of trichomonal vaginitis, a 20% huang lian extract is soaked into gauze and directly applied to the vaginal mucosal membrane; the reported efficacy rate was 96% (Huang 1993). The rhizome contains 7–9% berberine (Huang 1993). See also Berberis L. (fam Berberidaceae) and Argemone mexicana L. (fam. Papaveraceae).
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] According to Chopra et al. (1958), the leaves and seeds are irritant. According to Chopra et al. (1958), the leaves and seeds are irritant.
[Information available but not yet included in database] According to Chopra et al. (1958), the leaves and seeds can produce dermatitis. [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, a decoction of the root is used as a wash to get rid of lice, fleas, and other insects (Turner 1984). [Information available but not yet included in database] The seeds of this plant was formerly official is various pharmacopoeias, providing Delphinium, otherwise known as Staphisagria. Preparations of the seeds (Unguentum Staphisagriae; Lotio Staphisagriae) have a long history of use in the treatment of scabies and for killing head and body lice (Jamieson 1908, Wren 1988) but have largely fallen out of use in Western medicine with the development of less toxic acaricides and insecticides. An alcoholic solution from the seeds was applied to the heads of several children as a pediculicide. One child developed acute dermatitis of the face and hands three days after the application (White 1887). [Further information available but not yet included in database] Pammel (1911) listed this species as being irritant. According to Chopra et al. (1958), the leaves and seeds can produce dermatitis.
This species provides the crude drug Herba Ficariae. Culpeper (1652) and Wren (1988) refer to its use in the treatment of haemorrhoids. It would seem that this use of the plant arose from the Doctrine of Signatures because of the resemblance of the tubers to haemorrhoids. Pammel (1911) listed the plant as having irritant properties. [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
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Bonora et al. (1987) found that the leaves from Helleborus odorus subsp. laxus released only very low levels of the irritant lactone protoanemonin. See also Ranunculus L. below.
The common name hellebore has given rise to confusion since ancient times. Theophrastus (300 B.C.) observed that the white and black hellebores appear to have nothing in common except the name. White or false hellebore is Veratrum album L. (fam. Melanthiaceae). The root of this plant was formerly official in various pharmacopoeias. It provides Radix Hellebori Nigri, otherwise known as Radix Melampodii or Hellebori Nigri Rhizoma. The fresh root applied to the skin produces rubefaction and vesication (Piffard 1881). Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
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Schwartz et al. (1957) included the liver leaf in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. [Further information available but not yet included in database] Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers, probably only on the basis of its botanical classification in the Ranunculaceae. Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) noted that the early colonists of the Cape are reported as having used this plant as a cantharides substitute, and as a remedy for sciatica and rheumatism, probably by local application. [Further information available but not yet included in database] Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) recorded that the fresh crushed leaf is strongly irritant and vesicant but loses this property when dried. They went on to explain that the leaf is not suitable for use in medicine as a blistering agent because the action is too drastic, too penetrating, and too slow in developing.
The leaf is used as a vesicant; it is more effective when fresh. The root is also irritant, the sore resulting from its application healing only very slowly (Turnbull 1838, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
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The seeds of this plant are used in the traditional medicine of the Indian subcontinent, Arabian countries, and Europe for a variety of indications including dermatological conditions. A review of the pharmacology and toxicology is provided by Ali & Blunden (2003). [Further information available but not yet included in database] In his description of the properties of pasque flowers, Gerarde (1636) wrote: "Passe floure doth extremely bite, and exulcerateth and eateth into the skinne if it be stamped and applied to any part of the body; … "
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Weber (1930) included Anemone patens in a list of irritant plants. Schwartz et al. (1957) included Anemone patens in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the leaves are mashed and used as a poultice on sores, bruises, and boils for just a minute or so to draw out infection; severe blistering results if the leaves are left on for too long. The plant is also used as a poultice for horses, to heal cuts and stop bleeding (Turner 1984). [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Pammel (1911) asserted that the different parts of the plant (which he referred to as Anemone patens var. wolfgangiana) are extremely acrid and when applied to the skin cause irritation and vesication. He went on to describe how the juice of the plant, when spattered on the hands of a botanist while pressing the plant, had caused severe blistering; and that the vapours evolving from the fresh juice had inflamed the eyes. Aaron & Muttitt (1964) provided a detailed case report of bullous dermatitis which resulted from compresses of the leaves of what they believed to have been Anemone patens var. wolfgangiana (wild crocus) applied to the knees for the self-treatment of arthritis. Patch tests to the plant applied for 20–60 minutes produced vesicular reactions in volunteers. The irritant reaction could be repeated in the laboratory using Anemone patens L. [see above]. Hyperpigmentation appeared at the test sites. They also noted irritation of the conjunctiva and nasal mucosa from the vapour of the crushed stems and leaves. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
The dried plant, collected soon after flowering, is the source of the crude drug Pulsatilla, which was formerly official in the US Pharmacopoeia. According to Felter & Lloyd (1898), the fresh plant is irritant when applied topically; and, if kept long in contact with the skin, may produce vesication. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
The dried plant, collected soon after flowering, is an alternative source of the crude drug Pulsatilla, which was formerly official in the US Pharmacopoeia [see also Pulsatilla pratensis L. above]. Pammel (1911) referred to the irritancy of the plant. Schwartz et al. (1957) included this species in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. [Further information available but not yet included in database] The genus comprises about 600 species of herbs found in temperate and cold regions, and on mountains in tropical regions. Many are cultivated as garden ornamentals and for cut flowers; others are weeds (Mabberley 2008). Culpeper (1652) acknowledged in his monograph on crowfoot that there were many "sorts of this Herb" and that "the most common Crowfoot [is] in tast biting & sharp, biting & blistering the Tongue". He also noted that "an Oyntment of the Leavs or Flowers wil draw a Blister". Schwartz et al. (1957) included buttercups in general (Ranunculus spp.) in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. Rook (1962) noted that all the common species of buttercup are powerful irritants, adding that children who chew the stalks of buttercups may develop bullæ of the lips. Pammel (1911), citing various earlier authors, listed a number of species as acrid, irritant, or vesicant including:
Others are considered in the monographs below. Sniffing the bruised stems of buttercups induces sneezing (Behl et al. 1966). Buttercups and mustard plants (fam. Cruciferae) were suggested as the causative agents in a case of Oppenheim's meadow dermatitis described by Ullmo (1932); probably irritancy rather than photosensitivity was responsible. According to Woods (1962), blisters, often on and around the lips, in children who have been playing with buttercups, are not uncommon in country practice. The irritant properties were formerly ascribed to a crystalline material named anemone camphor (or pulsatilla camphor), soluble in ether and chloroform and possessing an intensely irritant vapour (Felter & Lloyd 1898, Remington et al. 1918). Later authors identified anemonol, ranunculus oil, or oil of anemone as the acrid principle. Oil of anemone was ultimately identified as protoanemonin, the cyclic lactone of γ-hydroxyvinylacrylic acid (Kipping 1935). This lactone does not occur as such in the plant, but is released from a glycosidic precursor by enzyme action when the plant material is damaged. Hill & van Heyningen (1951) identified the precursor of protoanemonin as ranunculin. Protoanemonin, in turn, is unstable and rapidly dimerises to form anemonin, the absolute configuration of which was finally established by Moriarty et al. (1965). Thus, we may suppose that anemone camphor or pulsatilla camphor [see above] is anemonin contaminated with residual protoanemonin. The presence of ranunculin in a plant or part of a plant can be taken to indicate that the plant material may well be irritant to the skin if specific conditions are met, namely exposure to fresh bruised material at an adequate concentration for an adequate period of time. Biological variation in the amount of ranunculin present and hence in the amount of protoanemonin released can be expected to occur between species and sub-species, between geographic locations, and at different stages during the growth of the plant. Protoanemonin, in contact with the skin, produces subepidermal blistering. Like other subepidermal vesicants, protoanemonin is capable of inhibiting the acantholytic effect of cantharidin (Burbach 1963). [Further information available but not yet included in database]
According to Pammel (1911), the leaves of the plant have an acrid peppery taste and cause blistering. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
Some authors have referred to this species incorrectly as Ranunculus acer, a name of no botanical standing (Harper 1957). White (1887), Piffard (1881), and Pammel (1911), noted that the sap is acrid and vesicant. Wendlberger (1935) claimed to have successfully transferred hypersensitivity to Ranunculus acer from one individual to another, suggesting that allergic sensitisation can occur as well as irritancy. Winters (1976) documented a case of severe urticaria in a dog following the ingestion of tall field buttercup. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Brooker & Cooper (1961a, 1961b) noted that the expressed juice from Ranunculus rivularis has blistering properties. Pammel (1911) listed the plant as being irritant. [Further information available but not yet included in database] Pammel (1911) listed the plant as irritant; Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described the plant as vesicant. In India, beggars and malingerers often use this plant to disfigure themselves with blisters (Behl et al. 1966). [Further information available but not yet included in database] Pammel (1911), citing various earlier authors, listed this species as being irritant. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
The sap, leaves, flowers, buds, and roots are irritant (White 1887, Pammel 1911). Piffard (1881) noted that this and most other members of the Ranunculaceae are acrid and caustic. They are apt … to cause ulcerations difficult to heal. The caustic principle … is so volatile that in most cases it is destroyed by desiccation, infusion in water, and decoction. [Further information available but not yet included in database] Weber (1930, 1937) included this species in lists of irritating plants of the United States. According to Githens (1949), the plant material applied locally has been used in South Africa as a remedy for scabies. [Information available but not yet included in database] According to Behl et al. (1966), this species is used in the same way as Ranunculus arvensis L. [see above]. [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described Ranunculus laetus as vesicant.
According to Piffard (1881), the plant causes reddening and vesication when applied to intact healthy skin. Prosser White (1934) referred to a case of a woman who developed inflammation and ulceration of the skin of the thigh after applying sciatic weed to the part. Pammel (1911) and Hurst (1942) also referred to the irritant properties of this plant. Applied locally, the plant has proven useful in the treatment of corns and warts (Piffard 1881). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the crushed or mashed plant is applied as a poultice to blisters from burns, open running sores, abrasions that do not heal, etc. The treatment causes blistering and is extremely painful (Turner 1984).
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described this species as vesicant. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] According to Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962), the plant is acrid and burning when chewed, and produces a considerable degree of irritation of the parts to which it is applied. They noted also that a severe burning sensation develops in the eyes if the fresh plant material is minced with the eyes unprotected; and that the bruised leaf, applied locally, has been used as a remedy for scabies. When eaten by sheep, the chief symptoms of poisoning are a profuse ropy salivation and trembling of the lips associated with acute ulcerative stomatitis (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
This species is regarded as intensely acrid (Ewart & Tovey 1909). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the achenes [= fruitlets with seed] are pulverised, moistened, and rubbed on the skin to cause blistering (Turner 1984).
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] Chopra & Badhwar (1940) described the plant as vesicant. According to Behl et al. (1966), this species is used in the same way as Ranunculus arvensis L. [see above]. The irritant action of the plant is similar to that of cantharidin but more delayed (Martínez 1969). [Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] According to White (1887) inflammation of the skin of the palms can result from pulling the plant by hand. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Kipping (1935) extracted protoanemonin from a steam distillate obtained from Ranunculus hirsutus when confirming the structure of this exceedingly irritant and lachrymatory oily substance. [Further information available but not yet included in database]
Numerous authors (White 1887, Pammel 1911, Weber 1930, Weber 1937, Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Shelmire 1939b, Shelmire 1940) have recorded that the fresh plant is intensely irritant and can produce violent blistering, particularly of the lips and tongue, but also of the skin. Piffard (1881) noted that if the plant be bruised and laid upon any part of the body, it will in a few hours raise a blister. He noted also that the juice causes vesicles and obstinate ulcers. Hill & van Heyningen (1951) isolated ranunculin, the precursor of the irritant lactone protoanemonin, from this species. The presence of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the leaves has been reported by Bhargava et al. (1965) but the contribution, if any, of this substance to the skin reaction elicited by the damaged plant material remains to be determined. [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database]
Pammel (1911) included this species in lists of irritant buttercups. [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] These herbs, of which there are 120–200 species, are found distributed in northern temperate regions, New Guinea, tropical America, and tropical and southern Africa (Mabberley 2008). Schwartz et al. (1957) included meadow rues in general (Thalictrum spp.) in a list of plants that might irritate the skin of florists, gardeners, and field labourers. It is possible that these plants have been assumed to be irritant because of their relationship to buttercups (Ranunculus L. spp.) or because of confusion with the common rue (Ruta graveolens L., fam. Rutaceae). [Further information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] According to Behl et al. (1966), this species is irritant. [Information available but not yet included in database] According to Behl et al. (1966), this species is irritant. [Further information available but not yet included in database] The native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas chew the dried fruits then rub them on the hair and body as a perfume. A "smudge" [= burning to release non-material essences] prepared from the plant is used as an insect repellant. The root is used to prepare a poultice for open wounds (Turner 1984). [Further information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
In the traditional medicine of the native peoples of British Columbia and neighbouring areas, the roots are pounded with a little water and applied as a poultice to boils. This treatment is said to promote suppuration but causes intense burning (Turner 1984). The genus comprises 31 species of herbs, which occur naturally in northern temperate regions (Mabberley 2008). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] References
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