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COMPOSITAE(Daisy or Sunflower family)Also known as the Asteraceae, this family of 13000 species in 900 genera forms one of the largest of flowering plant families. The majority are herbaceous plants; they are distributed over most of the world and examples may be found living in almost every situation. Very many members of this family are commonly grown for their attractive flowers. Particularly well known are the following genera:
The genera Ammobium R.Br., Anaphalis DC., Antennaria Gaertn., Catananche L., Helichrysum Mill., Lonas Adans., Rhodanthe Lindl., and Xeranthemum L. provide "everlasting flowers" commonly grown and used by flower-arrangers. A number of species also occur as weeds in the garden, for example certain thistles (Cirsium Mill. spp., Carduus L. spp.), hawkweeds (Hieracium L. spp.), groundsel (Senecio vulgaris L.), daisies (Bellis perennis L.), dandelions (Taraxacum officinale F.H.Wigg.), scentless mayweed (Tripleurospermum maritimum Koch subsp. inodorum Appleq.), and many more. Several species are grown for food. Perhaps the most popularly grown is the lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), but also grown are chicory (Cichorium intybus L.), endive (Cichorium endivia L.), cardoon and globe artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L.), scorzonera (Scorzonera hispanica L.), salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius L.), scolymus or Spanish oyster plant (Scolymus hispanicus L.), chopsuey green or shungiku (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.), Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.), and a few others. Relatively few species are likely to be encountered as houseplants. Worthy of note, however, are certain species of Senecio L., including the Cape ivy or waxvine (S. macroglossus DC.), the German, water, or parlor ivy (S. mikanioides Otto), and the hotdog plant or candle plant (S. articulatus Sch.Bip., syn. Kleinia articulata Haw.). A large number of species have been, and still are, used in popular or herbal medicine around the world. Where appropriate, some details are included under the individual monographs below. Similarly, a few members of the Compositae provide fragrance raw materials. These are also considered individually under the appropriate monographs below. Sesquiterpene lactones found in members of this family have often been found to have cytotoxic, anti-tumour, and/or mutagenic properties which appear to be associated with the presence of an α-methylene-γ-lactone ring (see, for example, Kupchan 1970, Tyson et al. 1971, Rodriguez et al. 1976a, MacGregor 1977, Gonzalez et al. 1978, Bevelle et al. 1981, Herz et al. 1981a, Mew et al. 1982). However, stramonin B, a pseudoguaianolide with an 11,13-epoxy group in place of the usual methylene group also shows cytotoxic activity (Grieco et al. 1978). Many members of the Compositae are capable of causing pollinosis, this property not being restricted to anemophilous species (Kahn 1924, Wodehouse 1971). The most important of the anemophilous species are the sagebrushes, mugworts, and wormwoods of the genus Artemisia L. (tribe Anthemideae). Also important are the ragweeds and false ragweeds belonging to the genus Ambrosia L. (incl. Franseria Cav.) in the tribe Heliantheae. The cockleburs (Xanthium L. species) in the same tribe are minor causes of pollinosis, as are the marshelders (Iva L. species). Pollens from members of many of the other tribes, on the other hand, are almost unknown as causes of pollinosis. These include the Arctotideae, Calenduleae, Heliantheae, Inuleae, and Mutiseae (Wodehouse 1971). • Medicinal / Folk-medicinal aspects: • Stepping on a bur from this plant, if it punctures the skin, may cause a lesion that takes as long as six weeks to heal (Flecker 1945). Acanthospermal B, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone, has been reported from this species.
An infusion of the dried, flowering tops has been used from early times for medicinal purposes. It is stated to have haemostatic properties (Wade 1977, Wren 1988), a property of the achilleine [= betonicine] it contains (Miller & Chow 1954). Indians of the north-west coast of North America make this plant into a poultice for use on skin rashes (Turner & Bell 1971). Flück & Jaspersen-Schib (1976) records that yarrow is anti-inflammatory and anti-spasmodic. This species has been recognised as a sternutatory for centuries (Gerarde 1636, Uphof 1959). Dermatitis from the plant was reported in 1899 by Lewin; the powdered and dried leaves are irritating to the nasal mucous membrane (Pammel 1911) and have been used as a sternutatory. Low (1924) mentions a case of a farmer who developed severe dermatitis after handling sheaves of oats, which seemed to be caused by the presence of milfoil in the sheaves - when rubbed on the skin, milfoil gave a marked reaction. Applied "as is" by patch test, the plant is probably irritant (Gans 1929, Rook 1962), but tests with extracts at non-irritant concentrations suggested that the plant is also a sensitiser (Shelmire 1939a, Mackoff & Dahl 1951). Hausen (1979a) reported that the plant has a moderate sensitising capacity in guinea pigs. Drinking of yarrow tea by a sensitised individual produced a generalised eruption (Gans 1929). Mackoff & Dahl (1951), referring to Achillea lanulosa, reported that they had observed positive patch test reactions to the plant in 4 from 21 patients with weed dermatitis. Krook (1977), investigating four patients with occupational contact dermatitis to lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), found that all four reacted positively to patch tests with Achillea millefolium. Fernandez de Corres & Corrales Torres (1978) observed positive patch test reactions to fresh Achillea millefolium and to an ether extract in two patients who were also sensitive to liverworts of the genus Frullania Raddi (fam. Frullaniaceae), Magnolia grandiflora L. (fam. Magnoliaceae), Dahlia variabilis Desf., Matricaria parthenium L. (see Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip.), and alantolactone (0.1% in petrolatum). One of the patients was also sensitive to Anthemis arvensis L. and Leucanthemum vulgare Lam. (syn. Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.). Thune & Solberg (1980) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from yarrow in two photosensitive and lichen allergic patients. Hausen (1979a) and Hausen & Osmundsen (1983) reported that an extract of yarrow (1% in petrolatum), applied to the skin of patients who were sensitised to Tanacetum parthenium or Chrysanthemum indicum L. elicited 2+ and 3+ reactions. A study over a period of about 6 years to assess the frequency of allergic skin reactions to Compositae species in a total of 3,851 individuals involved patch testing with a mixture of extracts from Compositae species (including Achillea millefolium) and with extracts from single species. One or more positive reactions were observed in 118 (3%) of these individuals. Of these, 53% of those tested reacted to a "short ether extract" of yarrow. When the patients were segregated according to occupation, those most at risk of developing Compositae sensitivity appeared to be florists, horticulturalists, and hobby gardeners. However, several individuals seemed to have acquired their Compositae-sensitivity following the use of herbal remedies, herbal massage oils, herbal shampoo, "natural ointment", or "natural cosmetics" (Hausen et al. 1996). The plant has been suspected of being a photosensitiser in Oppenheim's meadow dermatitis (Philadelphy 1928, Gans 1929, Créhange & Rosenthal 1933) but, under experimental conditions, extracts of the plant were found to show no phototoxic activity either on the skin (Van Dijk & Berrens 1964) or against three test micro-organisms (Wat et al. 1980b). Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin of this species in 6 from 45 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Several sesquiterpene lactones have been isolated from the plant (see Fischer et al. 1979) but none have the exocyclic methylene group on the lactone ring that is normally associated (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971) with contact allergenicity in this group of compounds. However, one of these sesquiterpene lactones, namely desacetylmatricarin (which is also named austricin), has been shown to have eliciting potential in lactone sensitised patients (Mitchell JC 1973 — unpublished observation). [Further information available but not yet included in database] Desacetylmatricarin, which has eliciting potential in sesquiterpene lactone sensitive patients [see Achillea millefolium above], has been isolated from this species (Neshta et al. 1966). This genus comprises 35–40 species, mostly found in the Americas. Those species previously considered to belong to the genus Franseria Cav. are loosely known as the franserioid ragweeds or false ragweeds, and are thus distinguished from the ambrosioid ragweeds or, simply, ragweeds. However, much confusion exists in the use of both scientific and common names. Ambrosia species are American in origin and are known in ecological terms as pioneer plants; that is to say they are well adapted to invade vacant soils from which the customary vegetation has been removed. From a limited distribution, they have thrived with the coming of agriculture and the interference with the ecology of the North American prairies (Wodehouse 1971). The plants are still spreading and have invaded the Pacific North West (Perlman 1952). Ragweed has also been spreading in Europe since the mid-20th century and is now a pest in several countries of Eastern Europe and rapidly expanding in Central Europe. It is estimated that 4–5% of Europeans have become sensitised to the highly allergenic pollen (Richter et al. 2013). In Hawai‘i, short ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) is reported to be present in a number of locations. The presence of A. psilostachya DC. in Australia was first reported by Ford (1963). Ragweed was first introduced from North America into Assam where it has now established itself as an escape (Behl et al. 1966). The plants are limited in their distribution by length of day and temperature; they flower only under short day conditions of 12 hours or less of sunlight. They are, thus, found in great abundance between latitudes 45° and 30°. One noteworthy exception is that they do not seem to naturalise generally in Japan (Wagner 1959). Ambrosia species occur only rarely in the British Isles (where the name ragwort is used for species of Senecio L.). Several species are found in other European countries, including Germany, Belgium, France, Switzerland, Holland, Austria, Sweden, and Italy. Ragweeds also occur, and are a dermatological hazard, in Argentina (Bozzola & Valentinetti 1955), and in the [former] USSR (Samo Ilov & Terekhova-Uvarova 1974). Two introductions of local interest are along the railroad tracks of British Columbia, Canada, and on the World War II invasion beaches of Normandy. Allergic contact dermatitis from (mainly the pollen of) Ambrosia species is the subject of an extensive literature dating at least from Hannah (1919) and Sutton (1919), and reviewed by Mitchell (1969). A distinction was made by Brown et al. (1931) between contact dermatitis from the oleoresin of the pollen and the Type I hypersensitivity from the proteinaceous fraction of the pollen. Sweitzer & Rusten (1938b) have reported the occurrence of positive patch and scratch tests to ragweed pollen in the same patient. The principal contact sensitisers are sesquiterpene lactones (Mitchell et al. 1971a); the exact nature of the atopens has yet to be clarified. Cross-sensitivity between Ambrosia species and other members of the family Compositae was reported by Brunsting & Williams (1936), and elaborated upon by Shelmire (1939a) and Mackoff & Dahl (1951). The biochemical basis of the cross-sensitivity is the presence of structurally related sesquiterpene lactones in the plants (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971). Persistence of ragweed dermatitis may result from contact with fomites: Wyse & Mallock (1970) note that ragweed pollen may be brought into the house with a Christmas tree; grain and hay may be contaminated with ragweed oil or other sesquiterpene lactone containing plants. Jordan et al. (1942) report ragweed dermatitis among workers in the flour and grain industries. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from an unspecified Franseria species in 9 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. A review of Ambrosia dermatitis has included the reports of Klauder (1929), Sulzberger & Wise (1930), Ramirez & Eller (1930), Milford (1930), Gay & Ketron (1932), Pascher & Sulzberger (1933), Frank (1935), Sweitzer & Rusten (1938b), Trunnell (1940), Sheldon & Blumenthal (1941), Anon (1943), Slater et al. (1946, 1947, 1948), Brachman & Roy (1954), Canizares & Trilla (1957), Fromer & Jenkins (1959), Cohen (1959), Stritzler (1960), and Spencer (1966). Other references are cited below in the appropriate monographs. Jillson et al. (1959), Epstein (1960), Mitchell (1969), and Lonkar et al. (1974) provide critical discussion.
Becker & O'Brien (1959) and Tan & Mitchell (1968) observed contact sensitivity to this plant. Mitchell et al. (1971a) investigated contact sensitivity to the false ragweed and the short ragweed [see Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. below]. In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", this species produced positive patch test reactions in 15 of 25 patients tested. Some of the patients were also sensitive to other Ambrosia as well as Helenium L., Iva L., Parthenium L., and Xanthium L. species (Mackoff & Dahl 1951). Cross-sensitivity has also been observed between A. acanthicarpa and Artemisia L., Chrysanthemum L., and Tanacetum L. species (Mitchell 1972). A number of sesquiterpene lactones, including artemisiifolin, chamissonin, confertiflorin, desacetylconfertiflorin, and psilostachyin C have been isolated from this franserioid species growing in various locations in the USA (Yoshioka et al. 1973). The species ranges west and south from the Dakotas and Nebraska to Washington, Oregon, California, and New Mexico.
This taxon is found in the south-west of USA and in Mexico. The sesquiterpene lactones damsin and franserin have been reported from the plant (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
This South American taxon is found in Ecuador, Columbia, Peru, and Bolivia. The sesquiterpene lactones coronopilin, damsin, psilostachyin, and psilostachyin C have been reported from the plant (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
This species is found almost throughout the United States, extending in distribution from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast, throughout southern Canada, and as far south as southern Florida, northern California, and Cuba. Short ragweed is a complex and variable species consisting of a number of genotypes which, under natural environmental conditions, tend to segregate out (Wodehouse 1971). Shelmire (1940) asserted that Ambrosia elatior is a herb with a high sensitising index. In various reports, 14 of 18 (Brunsting & Anderson 1934), 37 of 40 (Brunsting & Williams 1936), 23 of 50 (Shelmire 1939a), and 23 of 25 patients (Mackoff & Dahl 1951) who had "weed dermatitis" showed positive patch test reactions to this species. Krook (1977) observed positive patch test reactions to this species in 2 of 4 patients with occupational contact dermatitis to lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Burry & Kloot (1982) believe that Australian bush dermatitis is caused by airborne dusts from members of the Compositae, formed by the breakdown of senescent tissues in the hot, dry conditions of the bush, and that ragweed (A. artemisiifolia) is one of the specific elicitors of this condition. These authors also give distribution maps for Ambrosia species in Australia. Mitchell et al. (1971a) investigated contact sensitivity to the short ragweed and the false ragweed. Patients were found to be sensitive to a number of sesquiterpene lactones (desacetylconfertiflorin, psilostachyin, psilostachyin B, psilostachyin C, ambrosiol, damsin, tamaulipin A, tamaulipin B, isabelin, & reynosin) as well as to burweed marshelder and feverfew (unidentified species if Iva L. and Chrysanthemum L. respectively) and liverworts belonging to the genus Frullania Raddi (fam. Frullaniaceae). Tan & Mitchell (1968) and Thune & Solberg (1980) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from this species and other members of the Compositae in two photosensitive and lichen allergic patients. Positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin of the species were observed by Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) in 10 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Several sesquiterpene lactones, including ambrosin, coronopilin, damsin, isabelin, and psilostachyin have been reported from this species (Yoshioka et al. 1973). Inayama et al. (1974) reported the isolation of ambrosic acid, a sesquiterpenoid compound without a γ-lactone ring, from the pollen and other parts of this species. They described this compound as "irritant" but did not state how this activity was discovered.
Yoshioka et al. (1973) reported that no sesquiterpene lactones could be detected in this species, which grows in southern Peru and northern Chile. With respect to its capacity to produce "weed dermatitis" in the southern United States, Shelmire (1940) asserted that Ambrosia bidentata is a herb with a high sensitising index. Interestingly, Yoshioka et al. (1973) recorded that no crystalline lactones could be isolated from this species.
This small, perennial shrub found on the desert plains of Baja California, Mexico is remarkable for the long, chalky, and very sharp spines it bears along its stems (Payne 1962, 1964).
This extremely variable franserioid species from Baja California and western Sonora has been found to contain isoalantolactone (Yoshioka et al. 1973), a sesquiterpene lactone with proven sensitising potential (Stampf et al. 1978). This franserioid species, which is found in east-central Mexico and into Arizona, has been found to contain the potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone canambrin (Yoshioka et al. 1973). The potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone artemisiifolin has been reported from this species growing in Coahuila, Mexico (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
This somewhat variable franserioid species is found along the Pacific coasts of North and South America. It has been found to contain a number of potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones including chamissonin and costunolide. No sesquiterpene lactones could be detected in this species from southern Texas (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
This franserioid Baja Californian species has been found to contain the sesquiterpene lactones damsin, psilostachyin, and psilostachyin C (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
This extremely variable species is found in south-western USA, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and on the Hawaiian Islands of Oahu and Molokai. It has been reported to yield a number of sesquiterpene lactones including confertiflorin, reynosin, and parthenolide (Yoshioka et al. 1973). This taxon is found from southern Arizona, USA into northern Mexico and Baja California. The sesquiterpene lactones cordilin, psilostachyin B, and psilostachyin C have been isolated from the plant (Fischer et al. 1979). A number of sesquiterpene lactones, including ambrosin, coronopilin and damsin have been reported from Ambrosia cumanensis in Central Mexico; and tetrahydroambrosin, peruvinin, peruvin, and psilostachyin C from Ambrosia peruviana in Central South America (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
This franserioid species, which grows in southern Arizona, USA, Sonora, and Baja California, has been reported to contain the sesquiterpene lactones damsin and psilostachyin C (Yoshioka et al. 1973). This franserioid taxon is found in arid regions of the southern United States, extending into Sonora and Baja California. A number of sesquiterpene lactones including chamissonin, coronopilin, and psilostachyin have been isolated from the plant (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
No sesquiterpene lactones could be detected in this franserioid species which grows in southern Arizona and arid regions of Nevada, Utah, and California (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
No sesquiterpene lactones have been detected in this species (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
The sesquiterpene lactones ambrosin and damsin have been reported from this species which is found in the Florida Keys and Caribbean region (Yoshioka et al. 1973). Herz et al. (1981c) noted that flowering A. hispida is an excellent source of ambrosin and damsin, but that the vegetative plant yields principally damsinic acid, neoambrosin, and an ester of damsinic acid with 2-hydroxyambrosin. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from a plant given this name.
No sesquiterpene lactones could be detected in this franserioid species (Yoshioka et al. 1973). This taxon has been found to contain the potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones ambrosin and damsin (Yoshioka et al. 1973). Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species (Fischer et al. 1979).
This species is found throughout North America from southern Canada to central Mexico. It occurs in several slightly different forms which are regarded by some taxonomists as different species (Wodehouse 1971). Different populations of the plant yield different sesquiterpene lactones (Potter & Mabry 1972, Yoshioka et al. 1973) many of which are proven or potential contact allergens (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971). "Weed dermatitis" from this plant was reported by Brunsting & Williams (1936), Shelmire (1939a, 1940), and by Burry et al. (1973) in Australia. Also in Australia, Burry (1979), Turner (1980), and Burry (1980b) observed positive patch test reactions to this species in patients with "fleabane dermatitis" (caused by Conyza bonariensis Cronq.), in a patient with dermatitis attributable to picking firebush (Ixodia achillaeoides R.Br.) and wild artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L.), and in a patient with dermatitis caused by Gaillardia aristata Pursh respectively. Burry (1980a) also observed a weakly positive patch test reaction to this species in a 75 year old female who had been admitted to hospital because of a severe exacerbation of a condition that had been diagnosed four years previously as photodermatitis. The presence of Δ-3-carene, and α- & β-pinenes in this species (Potter & Mabry 1972) may explain the cross-sensitivity between turpentine and ragweed dermatitis described by Fisher (1952).
This species from San Diego County, California and northern Baja California has been found to contain desacetylconfertiflorin, psilostachyin, and psilostachyin C (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
This Argentinian species has been reported to contain the sesquiterpene lactones confertin and psilostachyin (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
No sesquiterpene lactones could be detected in this species (Yoshioka et al. 1973).
This species is of low sensitising capacity (Brunsting & Williams 1936, Shelmire 1939a) and rarely produces positive patch test reactions in patients sensitive to members of the Compositae. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin of this species in 4 from 54 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Yoshioka et al. (1973) observed that no sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species.
The plant produced positive patch test reactions in 6 of 50 patients with "weed dermatitis" (Shelmire 1939a). Shelmire (1940) later asserted that this broomweed is a moderate skin sensitiser.
The root of this perennial herbaceous species, which is endemic to Morocco and Algeria where it grows in the Atlas Mountains, provides the crude drug Radix Pyrethri [also known as Akarkara Root, Bertram Root, Pellitory Root, and Pyrethrum Root]. It should be noted that Pyrethrum Root (Radix Pyrethri) has been confused with Pyrethrum Flower (Flores Pyrethri), the source of the insecticide pyrethrum (Shepard 1933). The origin of this confusion would appear to be the use of the name pyrethrin by Buchheim (1876) for the peppery pungent constituent that he had isolated from an alcohol extract of Radix Pyrethri. A consequence of this has been the propagation in the literaturea,b,c,d,e of incorrect assertions that Pyrethrum Root / Pellitory Root contains insecticidal pyrethrins such as are found in Tanacetum cinerariifolium Sch.Bip., the source of Flores Pyrethri. Gerarde (1636) wrote:
Pereira (1842) described the root of the pellitory of Spain as very pungent, and when fresh, producing a sensation of extreme cold, followed by heat when handled. He further noted that pellitory is an energetic local irritant; and that applied to the skin, it acts as a rubefacient. Flückiger & Hanbury (1874) noted that the root has a slight aromatic smell, and a persistent, pungent taste, exciting a singular tingling sensation, and a remarkable flow of saliva, adding that it is chiefly employed as a sialogogue for the relief of tooth-ache, and occasionally in the form of a tincture as a stimulant and rubefacient. According to Stillé & Maisch (1884), pellitory is a powerful irritant and acts as a rubefacient on the skin; and when chewed it has an acrid taste, and excites a burning and pricking sensation in the mouth and fauces and a copious flow of saliva. The at one time officinal Tincture of Pyrethrum prepared from the root of this plant was described as a powerful local irritant in Remington et al. (1918), where it is also noted that the German Pharmacopoeia [sic; see, for example, Handwörterbuch der Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreichs (1882)]f formerly recognised Radix Pyrethri Germanici as a distinct entity derived from the root of Anacyclus officinalis Hayne [sic], an annual plant cultivated in Magdeburg, the roots being smaller and thinner than those of Anacyclus pyrethrum, the source of Radix Pyrethri Romani. Humphries (1979) later referred to this cultivated plant as "The extinct ‘Magdeburg’ officinal plant … which may simply be an annual derivative of A. pyrethrum …", i.e. an extinct cultivar. Grieve (1931), perhaps extrapolating from the early literature, described pellitory root thus:
Nadkarni (1976), in a monograph on ANACYLUS PYRETHRUM, DC. (Pyrethrum radix) [sic] described the root as being powerfully irritant, an observation seemingly repeated from Dey (1867),g Waring (1865),h or an even earlier source. Citing earlier literature, Daoudi et al. (2014), who reported the results of an ethnobotanical survey conducted among herbalists, traditional healers and druggists in the cities of Meknès, El Hajeb, Ifrane, Azrou, and Khénifra in Morocco, recorded that the roots of African pyrethrum are used in the form of a cream based on animal fats to treat gout and sciatica; that the powder of the root is mixed with olive oil and beeswax or in a decoction to relieve rheumatic pains; and that the powder of the root mixed with vegetable tar is recommended against ringworm, pediculosis and certain mycoses. Further, the essential oil of African pyrethrum is used in a poultice with a neutral oil and other plants to calm rheumatic pains and neuralgia. According to Hachi et al. (2015), the root, prepared as a liniment in olive oil, is used in the treatment of rheumatism and cysts, and skin inflammation. The bioactive substances in the roots of the plant are olefinic and acetylenic N-alkylamides, principally pellitorin [(2E,4E)-N-(2-methylpropyl)deca-2,4-dienamide] and anacyclin [(2E,4E)-N-(2-methylpropyl)-2,4-tetradecadiene-8,10-diynamide]. Pellitorin, which was originally isolated as a mixture of three closely related homologues and named pellitorine, is a strong sialagogue and has insecticidal activity (Crombie 1955). According to Bowden & Ross (1963), it causes intense formication followed by local anaesthesia when applied to the tongue. More recent literature in the field of food flavourings describes pellitorin[e] as one of the strongest tingle agents, producing a tingling paraesthesia (Dewis 2005). The roots of the plant also contain sesamin (Burden & Crombie 1969), which is one of the compounds involved in sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae) contact dermatitis.
In traditional Western medicine, preparations of the plant have been applied as a fomentation to bruises (Remington et al. 1918). The potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone helenalin has been reported from this species (Fischer et al. 1979). This species can hyperaccumulate cobalt from soils rich in this element. A concentration of 2650 µg/g (ppm) of cobalt in the dried plant material was detected in a specimen growing in the region of a copper and cobalt mine in the "copper belt" of Zaïre (Malaisse et al. 1979). The contact sensitising capacity of cobalt and its salts is well documented (Malten et al. 1976, Cronin 1980).
Vesicular dermatitis produced as a result of picking the plant was described by Fivoli (1936). Patch tests were positive to the flowers, and negative to the leaves. However, in three other cases, Möslein (1963) obtained positive reactions to both petals and leaves. Weak reactions to Roman chamomile (Anthemis nobilis L.) and German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) were also observed in these patients. Fernandez de Corres & Corrales Torres (1978) reported that cross-sensitivity reactions between Anthemis arvensis and liverworts of the genus Frullania Raddi (fam. Frullaniaceae) may also be observed.
Several authors agree that the plant is a strong irritant (White 1887, Pammel 1911, Chopra & Badhwar 1940, Rook 1962; other reports suggest irritancy (Sequeira 1921, Rowe 1934, Underwood & Gaul 1948). Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) refer to reports from India that the leaf and flower have both caused dermatitis. Sixteen farm workers developed a bullous eruption of exposed parts (Grichener 1935); the hands and also the feet were affected in harvest workers who worked barefoot (Krantz 1938). Bullous dermatitis of the feet occurred in flax workers who worked barefoot on fields in which Anthemis cotula was growing as a common weed (D'Agostino 1927). The plant is also probably allergenic since 5 of 25 patients who had "weed dermatitis" showed positive patch test reactions to an extract of the plant (Mackoff & Dahl 1951). Shelmire (1940) observed urticarial patch test reactions lasting 12–14 h, and negative at 24 h; a 1+ patch test reaction to the "plant oil" from this species in a single patient with multiple allergies was reported by Lovell et al. (1955). Phytophotodermatitis from the plant has been alleged; however, sunlight is not necessary to produce the skin reactions (Woods 1962). Extracts of the plant were found to have weak phototoxic activity against only one of three test micro-organisms (Wat et al. 1980b). Thune & Solberg (1980) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from this species in three photosensitive and lichen allergic patients. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin of the species in 10 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. A potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone has been isolated from this species. Pammel (1911) listed Anacyclus pedunculatus as an irritant plant, but cited an incorrect source for his information.
9-Hydroxyparthenolide, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971), has been isolated from Anvillea garcinii (Tyson et al. 1981). In NW Moroccan traditional medicine, a decoction of the flower is used externally as a vaginal antiseptic (Merzouki et al. 2000). This South American genus comprising two species, as a member of the sub-family Barnadesioideae, is characterised in part by the presence of axillary spines of a type unique in the family (Bremer & Jansen 1992, Ferreira et al. 2019). The spines are able to inflict mechanical injury. The following species have been described:
Sesquiterpene lactones, taxonomic markers typically found in the Compositae, are seemingly absent from the Barnadesioideae (Ccana-Ccapatinta et al. 2018).
White (1887), referring to Arctium officinalis, noted that the rough leaves have been used as a rubefacient, and that parts of the burs mixed with the seeds irritated workmen unless they stood to windward. The rough hairs can produce irritation of the skin (Sidi 1951) and of the cornea (Grant 1974). The effects on the eye are both mechanical and toxic (Bruhn 1938, Havener et al. 1955, Breed & Kuwabara 1966). The barbed needles attached to the seeds are responsible rather than the outer shafts that hook onto clothing (Duke-Elder & MacFaul 1972b). A statement that the leaves can produce contact dermatitis (Massey 1941) requires confirmation. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin of the species in 2 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Phototoxic activity of an extract of burdock against two of three test micro-organisms was demonstrated by Wat et al. (1980b). The potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone arctiopicrin has been reported to occur in this species. Burdock root prepared into a herbal tea caused anticholinergic symptoms from an atropine-like alkaloid possibly present as a contaminant (Anon 1979).
The species is a native of South Africa, adventive to Australia (Hand 1944). Dermatitis occurred from contact with the plant (Farmer 1941, Hand 1944); the essential oil of the plant produced a positive patch test reaction in one case when diluted 1 in 100 but, in a second case, a generalised flare-up of dermatitis occurred (Hand 1944). The fresh plant is irritant by closed patch test in almost every case tested (Burry 1973). Burry et al. (1973) observed positive patch test reactions to an extract from the plant in 1 of 13 patients with "Australian bush dermatitis". Cross-sensitivity to various Chrysanthemum L., Xanthium L., Olearia Moench, and Inula L. species was also observed. Burry (1979) observed a positive patch test reaction to this species in a patient with "fleabane dermatitis" (see Conyza bonariensis Cronq.). Burry & Kloot (1982) believe that Australian bush dermatitis is caused by airborne dusts from members of the Compositae, formed from the breakdown of senescent tissues in the hot, dry conditions of the bush, and that capeweed (A. calendula) is one of the specific elicitors of this condition. These authors also give a distribution map for this species in Australia. Burry (1980a) observed a weakly positive patch test reaction to this species in a 75 year old patient who had been admitted to hospital with a severe exacerbation of a condition that had been diagnosed 4 years previously as photodermatitis.
Various cultivars of this species are grown as pot plants in Europe. Sesamin, which is known for its role in sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae) dermatitis, has been isolated from this species (Winterfeldt 1963). Members of this genus are shrubs that are found in the Peruvian and Ecuadorean Andes. The genus has recently been re-classified in a new sub-family, namely the Barnadesioideae, which comprises ten genera and approximately 85 species found in South America, and which is characterised in part by the presence of axillary spines of a type unique in the family (Ezcurra 1985, Bremer & Jansen 1992, Ulloa Ulloa et al. 2002, Ferreira et al. 2019). The spines are able to inflict mechanical injury. The following species have been described:
Sesquiterpene lactones, taxonomic markers typically found in the Compositae, are seemingly absent from the Barnadesioideae (Ccana-Ccapatinta et al. 2018).
This is a widely distributed species, its natural range extending from the Alaskan Archipelago south to the San Bernardino Mountains in California, and in the southern Rocky Mountains into New Mexico. Over this wide range there is a considerable but confluent polymorphy, which prompted Maguire (1943) to propose that three subspecies should be recognised, namely subsp. genuina, foliosa, and incana. Although currently not recognised as subspecies, phytochemical studies have demonstrated that they could be considered to be chemovars or chemotypes on the basis of their differing sesquiterpene lactone profiles. Willuhn et al. (1983, 1985) noted that TLC analyses have shown that the two subspecies foliosa and genuina do differ in their sesquiterpene lactones. Evstratova et al. (1969) isolated arnifolin, a pseudoguianolide / helenanolide-type sesquiterpene lactone from the leaves and flower heads of Arnica foliosa grown near Moscow [in the former USSR]; Holub et al. (1972) isolated carabrone, a xanthanolide-type sesquiterpene lactone from Arnica foliosa grown near Prague [in the former Czechoslovakia]; and arnifolin and further pseudoguianolides / helenanolides have been reported from Arnica chamissonis subsp. foliosa (Leven & Willuhn 1987, Willuhn et al. 1990). By contrast, Willuhn et al. (1981) found the predominant sesquiterpene lactones from the flowers of Arnica chamissonis subsp. genuina to be the pseudoguianolides / helenanolides chamissonolide and 6-desoxychamissonolide, the eudesmanolide ivalin also being reported from among the minor sesquiterpene lactones of this taxon grown at the Rauischholzhausen Experimental Station, Germany. Willuhn & Kresken (1981) had earlier reported that the dominating sesquiterpene lactone found in their cultivated Arnica chamissonis subsp. foliosa and Arnica chamissonis subsp. incana was 4-acetyl-6-deoxychamissonolide. They also found the pseudoguianolide / helenanolide 11,13-dihydrohelenalin in the subspecies incana, and detected the presence of its acetic, isovaleric, and isobutyric esters (arnicolides A, B and C). Arnicolide B was also found in the subspecies foliosa. This taxon, recognised as Arnica chamissonis subsp. foliosa or as Arnica foliosa, was at one time accepted in the pharmacopoeias of East Germany,a Poland,b and the USSRc as a substitute for Arnica montana L. [see below] in the preparation of the crude drug Arnicae Flos (or Flores Arnicae). The exocylic α-methylene function on a γ-lactone ring renders the various sesquiterpene lactones in this taxon potentially contact allergenic (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971). However, patch testing with this variable species (or its subspecies) needs to take account of the chemovariation. Arnica Chamissonis Flower Extract [INCI; CAS RN 97659-55-7; of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)]d, is a recognised cosmetic product ingredient purported to have fragrancing and skin conditioning properties (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4).
Three persons isolating sesquiterpene lactones from the flower heads of this species developed an occupational allergic contact dermatitis. The sensitising compounds were found to be the sesquiterpene lactones carabrone, helenalin,and acetylhelenalin. Cross-reactivity to Arnica montana L., Chrysanthemum indicum L., apoludin, ambrosiol, burrodin, and coronopilin was also observed (Hausen et al. 1978c).
The plant has long been used in the form of a tincture (of either the dried flowerheads or the rhizomes) for local application to bruises and sprains (Biberstein 1927, Hausen & Schulz 1973, Stuart 1979), but is of doubtful value and may produce severe dermatitis (Wade 1977). Ingestion of the flowerheads has produced severe gastrointestinal symptoms (Wade 1977). Most of the reports of dermatitis from Arnica originate from Europe. Arnica allergy was reviewed by Hausen (1980a). Tincture of Arnica, which is an alcoholic extract, has been known to be capable of producing dermatitis since the 19th Century. According to White (1887), Hebra had seen many such cases and recommended to those who advocated its use that homeopathic amounts be made up, that is "a drop of the tincture to a pail of water". White (1887) also quoted Fox as stating in 1873 that "arnica may produce erythema and swelling of the part to which it is applied, or it may excite a real eczema"; the root as well as the flowerhead was "irritant". Phillips (cited by Morrow 1893) asserts that the irritant effects of arnica never follow the use of an aqueous solution which contains none of the volatile oil from the plant. Arnica tincture in contact with the eye has caused oedema of the lids and hyperaemia of the conjunctiva, but has not been considered to be injurious to either the cornea or the conjunctiva (Grant 1974). Harrison (1906) included arnica in a list of drugs, applied externally or taken internally, which may cause dermatitis. Piffard (1881), citing earlier observations made by Mercier in 1811, contemplated the possibility that the irritant actions of arnica preparations are attributable to infestation of the flowers used in their preparation with the larvae of Atherix maculatus. This was further rationalised by his own observation that tinctures prepared from arnica root seemed not to possess the acrid and irritating properties of the tincture prepared from the flowers. Hausen (1980a) found over 35 references describing more than 100 cases of arnica dermatitis. In most cases, sensitisation was induced by self-treatment with a tincture; occupational contact dermatitis in crude drug sellers and pharmacists was rare. The plant itself has also caused dermatitis (Kanngiesser 1911, cited by Touton 1932 and Hausen 1980a). Other cases of contact dermatitis have been reported by Ochsenheimer (1844), Turck (1853), White (1875, 1887), Farquharson (1879), Anon (1880), Wilckinghoff (1880), Cartier (1884), Hendrix (1884), Cagny (1884), de Molènes (1886), Seycheron (1886), Laissus (1887), Lewin (1899), Mouillot (1899), Csillag (1901), Desmons (1902), Proctor-Sims (1912), Jaeger (1923), Gougerot & Lotte (1926), Biberstein (1927), Urbach (1927, 1928, 1949), Stauffer (1931), Blumenthal (1933), Tezner (1934), Bonnevie (1938), Forst (1939), Tzanck (1950), Mackenna (1954), Eissner (1960), Lewin (1962), Paschoud (1965), Pambor & Wagner (1966), Beetz (1971a, 1971b), Schleicher (1974), Rudzki & Grzywa (1977), Wüthrich (1977), and Hausen (1980a). In addition, patch tests with tinctures of arnica have elicited positive reactions in 13 from 539 (Zündel 1936), 1 from 87 (Pambor & Wagner 1966), 0 from 338 (Schubert 1967), 32 from 755, and a further 32 (Kutos 1968), 5 from 273 (Richter 1969), 5 from 348 (Kleine-Natrop & Richter 1969), 8 from 200 (Beetz 1971a), 17 from 500 (Calas et al. 1978) patients tested for various reasons (figures taken from Hausen 1980a). Cross-sensitivity between Arnica and Chrysanthemum L. has been observed (Paschoud 1965, Hausen 1979a). A number of sesquiterpene lactones have been isolated from Arnica montana, including helenalin and its acetate and methacrylate, arnifoline, carabrone, and xanthalongin. Helenalin and its esters have proved to be the primary sensitisers (Hausen 1980a). This genus, which is classified in the tribe Anthemideae, comprises nearly 300 species (Kelsey & Shafizadeh 1979) that are found in northern temperate regions, southern Africa, and South America. Members of this genus are common on arid soils of the western United States and of the Russian steppes. Some five species yield oils used in perfumery (Arctander 1960). These include Artemisia annua L., Artemisia dracunculus L., Artemisia pallens Wall. ex Besser, and Artemisia vulgaris L. Oil of Levant wormseed is derived from Artemisia maritima L.; oil of wormwood is derived from Artemisia absinthium L. The bitter wormwood of the Old Testament (Proverbs 5:3) is said to be Artemisia judaica L. Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus L.) is used for flavouring a vinegar; the dried herb is frequently handled by cooks, for it is an essential ingredient of Sauce Béarnaise of high gastronomic repute. Many species yield sesquiterpene lactones that are proven or potential contact allergens (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971, Mitchell et al. 1971b, Yoshioka et al. 1973). The following taxa are representative:
Sesamin, which is known for its role in sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae) dermatitis, has been reported from the roots of the following species (Greger 1981):
The fresh or dried leaves or flowering tops provide the crude drug known as absinthium, the essential oil of which contains principally thujone. A tincture of absinthium is used as a bitter to flavour the beverage Absinthe and possibly also Vermouth. Habitual use of absinthium can lead to absinthism, the symptoms of which are restlessness, vomiting, vertigo, tremors, and convulsions (Wade 1977). If used as a smoke or tea, it can have relaxant and narcotic-analgesic effects (Siegel 1976, Anon 1979). The flowers of this weed, which is common on roadsides and in old gardens, have caused a scarlatiniform eruption in sensitised persons working in its vicinity (Schwartz et al. 1957). According to Behl et al. (1966), the flowers have a greater sensitising capacity than the leaves. Four patients who had plant dermatitis showed positive patch test reactions to this plant which was a constituent of a proprietary topically applied remedy for dermatitis (Underwood & Gaul 1948). Mitchell et al. (1971b) observed a negative patch test reaction to the plant in a patient with contact sensitivity to other Artemisia L. species and some other members of the Compositae. Hausen & Osmundsen (1983) reported a positive patch test reaction to an extract of wormwood (10% in petrolatum) in a hobby gardener who was sensitised to feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip.) and cross-sensitive to 8 other members of the Compositae as well as to the liverwort Frullania dilatata Dum. (fam. Frullaniaceae) and Laurus nobilis L. (fam. Lauraceae). Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from this species in 10 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. The fragrance raw material known as artemisia oil or wormwood is produced by steam distillation of the plant. It was found to be slightly irritating to rabbit skin when applied under occlusion for 24 hours. When diluted to 2% in petrolatum, it was non-irritant (48 hour closed patch test) and non-sensitising (maximisation test) in 25 human volunteers. Also, no phototoxic effects from the undiluted oil could be detected in mice or swine (Opdyke 1975, p. 721). Sesquiterpene lactones have been isolated from this species (Yoshioka et al. 1973, Fischer et al. 1979), but all lack the exocyclic methylene group on the lactone ring that is usually associated (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971) with contact allergenicity in this class of compounds. This plant is one of the most widely used of herbal remedies in southern Africa. Any irritant effects from it are probably due to camphor which is present in the volatile oil from the plant (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
The plant has a long history of use in China for its antifebrile properties. It is the source of the crude drug known as Qing Hao or Herba Artemisiae Apiaceae. Artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone known in Chinese as qinghaosu (青蒿素), has been isolated from the plant and found to have antimalarial properties (Bruce-Chwatt 1982, Xaio 1983). It lacks the structural features (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971) that are normally associated with contact allergenicity in this class of compounds. However, the potentially allergenic arteannuin B (a cadinanolide) has been reported from this species (Kelsey & Shafidazeh 1979). According to Merzouki et al. (2000), the powdered leaf is used in NW Moroccan traditional medicine as an external application in the treatment of cutaneous infections and wrinkles. Sesamin, which is known for its role in sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae) dermatitis, has been reported from the roots of this species (Greger 1981).
In the traditional medicine of China, Japan, and some other Far Eastern countries, the leaves or the downy hairs on the leaves and stems of this (see, for example, the online 中藥詞典 Chinese Herb Dictionary 2014 and Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2015)a,b and some other species of Artemisia L. or Crossostephium Less. are used to prepare moxa (Stuart 1911, Remington et al. 1918, Oda 2000, Cui et al. 2013). Those other species include:
The crude dried plant material is known as ai hao (艾蒿; mugwort), ai ye (艾葉 or 艾叶; wormwood leaf), or simply as ai (艾), the distinction between botanical species being unimportant from the medical standpoint (Stuart 1911). qi ai (蘄艾) or xiang ju (香菊) refers to Crossostephium chinense (Chinese wormwood),c the source also of the crude drug bai ai (白艾; Crossostephii Folium).d However, only Artemisia argyi is recognised by the Chinese Pharmacopoeia 2015 as the correct botanical source of ai ye (艾叶; Folium Artemisiae Argyi; Argy Wormwood Leaf) for preparing moxa.b Moxa cones (ai zhu; 艾炷) are small combustible masses traditionally used to produce an eschar by being burned in contact with the skin. This form of therapy, which is used for both cauterising and counter-irritant purposes, is known as moxibustion (ai jiu; 艾灸). According to Stuart (1911), the dried and processed plant material used as a moxa is known as ai jung (or otherwise, ai rong; 艾絨; Artemisiae Argyri Folium Tritum; Mugwort Floss). The first sensation experienced during moxibustion is not disagreeable; but the operation becomes gradually more painful, and towards the close is for a short time very severe (Remington et al. 1918). Chang et al. (2012) provide a contemporary account of the practice of moxibustion. Condé-Salazar et al. (1991) described in outline the principles underlying the use of moxibustion and its relationship with acupuncture, and documented a case of a patient who presented with numerous burns of the hand and wrist following (reportedly successful) moxibustion therapy for "tennis elbow". Liang et al. (2011) noted that it is a traditional custom in China that a puerpera [a woman in the period immediately succeeding childbirth] should have a steam bath 3-15 days after delivery. Puerperae usually use a simple household device reproducing the conditions of a sauna, a bathtub being set inside a vapour hood and boiling water being poured into the bath. The person then sits on a stool above the bathtub with argy wormwood leaf being continuously added to the boiling water to produce a vapour containing the volatile oils from the plant. A case has been reported by Liang et al. (2011) of a 29-yr-old woman who sustained a second-degree burn on both buttocks and the left thigh when the plastic stool on which she was sitting softened and collapsed at the temperature of the boiling water. These authors also noted that in China, a bath in argy wormwood leaf water is used to relieve skin itching. Chua et al. (2015) reported erythema ab igne and dermal scarring caused by cupping and moxibustion. In China, moxibustion has been proposed as a way of changing breech presentation to cephalic presentation [external cephalic version] during childbirth, moxa or moxibustion sticks being burnt at an acupuncture point at the tip of the fifth toe. Burns are frequently reported as an adverse side effect (Coyle et al. 2023).
Mitchell et al. (1971b) observed a negative patch test reaction to this species applied "as is" in a patient who showed contact sensitivity to five other Artemisia L. species and certain other members of the Compositae. Rowe (1939) observed a 4+ patch test reaction to this species in a patient with dermatitis from Xanthium spinosum L. A potentially allergenic eudesmanolide has been reported from this species.
Mitchell et al. (1971b) observed a negative patch test reaction to Artemisia borealis applied "as is" in a patient who showed contact sensitivity to five other Artemisia L. species and certain other members of the Compositae. The fragrance raw material known as tarragon oil or estragon oil is distilled from the leaves, stems, and flowers of this species. The oil was found to be irritant when applied to the skin of rabbits and mice. However, when applied at a dilution of 4% in petrolatum, no irritancy was observed in a 48 hour closed patch test, and no sensitising properties could be demonstrated in a maximisation test on 25 human volunteers. The oil was also not phototoxic (Opdyke 1974, p. 709).
Bohlmann et al. 1985 isolated 8-deoxycumambrin B from Artemisia frigida [not from Artemisia sieversiana Ehrh. ex Willd. as recorded in Liu et al. 2017]. Deoxycumambrin B has been recognised as a strong elicitor in patch testing of patients sensitised to florist's chrysanthemums (Bleumink et al. 1976) and/or to the perfumery material costus oil / costus absolute (Mitchell & Epstein 1974). See also Artemisia nova A.Nelson below.
Mitchell et al. (1971b) observed a negative patch test reaction to Artemisia trifurcata applied "as is" in a patient who showed contact sensitivity to five other Artemisia L. species and certain other members of the Compositae. Romo et al. (1970) and Mata et al. (1985) reported the isolation and characterisation of several sesquiterpene lactones from Artemisia klotzchiana [sic] collected in Mexico, including two guianolides (matricarin and desacetylmatricarin) that lack the exocylic α-methylene group on the γ-lactone ring, and several (chrysartemin A, ridentin, hanphyllin, jaceosidin, sudatichin and the new guaianolide chloroklotzchin, which is a halogenated lactone) with an exocylic α-methylene function on a γ-lactone ring that renders these various substances potentially contact allergenic (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971). The volatile oil from this taxon has been reported to contain carvacrol, eugenol, β-thujone, (–)-camphor, 1,8-cineole, (+)-limonene, (–)-α-phellandrene, and (–)-borneol (Manjarrez & Medina 1964), substances that may elicit delayed hypersensitivity reactions in patients with fragrance allergy. Desacetylmatricarin [of unspecified purity] has produced positive patch test reactions in a sesquiterpene lactone-sensitive patient (Mitchell JC 1973 — unpublished observation [see Matricaria chamomilla L. below].
Mitchell et al. (1971b) observed a severe, delayed patch test reaction to Artemisia lindleyana in a patient with contact sensitivity to Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. and three other Artemisia species.
Contact sensitivity to prairie sage was reported by Brunsting & Anderson (1934), and has been observed by one of the authors (A.J.R.) in a professional gardener. Of 25 patients with "weed dermatitis", 17 showed positive patch test reactions to this plant with cross-sensitivity to other members of the Compositae (Mackoff & Dahl 1951). Mitchell et al. (1971b) also observed a severe, delayed positive reaction to a patch test with the plant material in a patient who was sensitive to four other Artemisia species as well as to ludovicins A, B, & C, eupatoriopicrin, artemorin acetate, and parthenolide. This taxon does not appear to have been studied phytochemically. Moreover, because of the confusion in the taxonomy and nomenclature of plants described loosely as Artemisia ludoviciana or Artemisia mexicana, reports of allergic contact dermatitis from these plants should be interpreted with caution unless plant material has been adequately authenticated.
None of 50 patients with "weed dermatitis" showed positive patch test reactions to an extract of this plant (Shelmire 1939a). Ludovicin A, a sesquiterpene lactone found in this taxon (Yoshioka et al. 1973), has been shown to elicit contact dermatitis in two patients, one of whom was found to be sensitive to five species of Artemisia (Mitchell et al. 1971b).
Mitchell et al. (1971b) observed a strongly positive patch test reaction to this plant in a patient who was sensitive to four other Artemisia L. species.
Mitchell et al. (1971b) observed a negative patch test reaction to Artemisia norvegica applied "as is" in a patient who showed contact sensitivity to five other Artemisia L. species and certain other members of the Compositae.
Mitchell et al. (1971b) observed a negative patch test reaction to Artemisia arctica applied "as is" in a patient who showed contact sensitivity to five other Artemisia L. species and certain other members of the Compositae.
The guaianolide 8-deoxycumambrin B was first reported from this taxon and from Artemisia tripartita subsp. rupicola Beetle [see below] by Irwin & Geissman (1969). Deoxycumambrin B has been recognised as a strong elicitor in patch testing of patients sensitised to florist's chrysanthemums (Bleumink et al. 1976) and/or to the perfumery material costus oil / costus absolute (Mitchell & Epstein 1974). Artemisia Pallens Flower Extract,a Artemisia Pallens Flower/Leaf/Stem Oil, Artemisia Pallens Herb Extract,b Artemisia Pallens Herb Oilc [INCI; CAS RN 91844-86-9],d and Artemisia Pallens Flower Oil, otherwise known as Davana Flower Oile [INCI; CAS RN 91844-86-9 & 8016-03-3], all of uncertain composition (see Schmidt 2017)], are recognised cosmetic product ingredients used for fragrancing / perfuming (Standing Committee on Cosmetic Products 2019, CosIng 2023/4). Davana Oil or Davana Flower Oil is prepared by steam distillation of the flowering tops of this plant. The oil was found to be moderately irritant to rabbit skin when applied under occlusion for 24 hours. At a dilution of 4% in petrolatum, the oil was found to be non-irritant in a 48 hour closed patch test and non-sensitising in a maximisation test carried out on 33 human volunteers. Also, no phototoxic effects could be demonstrated in mice and swine (Opdyke 1976). This is one of the Artemisia species used to prepare moxa cones in the practice of moxibustion [see Artemisia argyi H.Lév. & Vaniot above]. In a review of the various categories of phytochemicals reported from this species, including guaiane- and germacrane-type sesquiterpene lactones, sesamin-type lignans, flavonoids, steroids, and alkaloids, Liu et al. (2017) reported incorrectly that Bohlmann et al. (1985) had isolated the potentially contact allergenic guaianolide 8-deoxycumambrin B from this species [see also Artemisia frigida Willd. above].
The Yupik eskimos of south-west Alaska have applied the boiled pulp of the fresh leaves of this plant to skin infections, with success against impetigo and some other diseases (Overfield et al. 1980). Mitchell et al. (1971b) observed a negative patch test reaction to this plant in a patient who was sensitive to five other Artemisia L. species. The plant has been reported to yield the guaianolide sesquiterpene lactones matricarin and desacetylmatricarin (Yoshioka et al. 1973). These compounds lack the exocyclic methylene group on the lactone ring that is normally associated with contact allergenicity (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971) in this class of compounds but, nevertheless, desacetylmatricarin has produced positive patch test reactions in a sesquiterpene lactone-sensitive patient (Mitchell JC 1973 — unpublished observation).
The guaianolide 8-deoxycumambrin B was first reported from this taxon and from Artemisia nova A.Nelson [see above] by Irwin & Geissman (1969). Deoxycumambrin B has been recognised as a strong elicitor in patch testing of patients sensitised to florist's chrysanthemums (Bleumink et al. 1976) and/or to the perfumery material costus oil / costus absolute (Mitchell & Epstein 1974). Stuart (1911) referred to this taxon as being a botanical source of ai jung (or otherwise, ai rong; 艾絨; Artemisiae Argyri Folium Tritum; Mugwort Floss) used to prepare moxa (ai huo; 艾火), which are small combustible masses used in a form of therapy known as moxibustion (ai jiu; 艾灸) — see Artemisia argyi H.Lév. & Vaniot above for further detail. According to Stuart (1911), both the expressed juice of the fresh plant and a decoction prepared from the plant may also be used in Chinese traditional medicine as an application or wash in the treatment of wounds and ulcers respectively. In addition, the leaves may be steamed and used as a poultice to relieve pain, this preparation being known as ai pa (艾把). Artemisia vulgaris is listed by Mackoff & Dahl (1951) as a cause of "weed dermatitis". A male, aged 44 years, developed severe dermatitis from applying a decoction of the plant to the skin and drinking a tea made of it (Kurz & Rappaport 1979). Hausen (1979a) observed two patients with weakly positive (1+) patch test reactions to mugwort who were very sensitive to Chrysanthemum indicum. Kaupinnen et al. (1980) noticed that mugwort elicited positive patch test reactions in all of 14 patients who suffered from severe attacks of angio-oedema and urticaria caused by celery (Apium graveolens L., fam. Umbelliferae) and parsley (Petroselinum crispum Fuss, fam. Umbelliferae). The fragrance raw material known as armoise oil is distilled from the leaves and flowering tops of this species.a Opdyke (1975) reported that the oil was slightly irritating when applied to rabbit or guinea pig skin under occlusion for 24 hours. At a dilution of 12% in petrolatum, no irritancy (48 hour closed patch test) nor sensitising ability (maximisation test) could be demonstrated in 24 human volunteers. Also, no phototoxic effects could be demonstrated in mice nor swine. However, Kozuka et al. (1996) found armoise oil to be a sensitiser in a guinea pig maximisation test, but concluded from patch tests in 234 patients with contact dermatitis that daily use of this fragrance material is relatively safe in terms of skin sensitisation, although caution was warranted.
Oliver (1959a), after noting that the bruised leaves and the flowers of Aspilia latifolia are widely used in Nigeria as a haemostatic and to cleanse the surface of wounds by absorbing exudations, added that in Liberia, the plant is said to be extraordinarily effective in stopping bleeding, even from a severed artery, and to induce rapid healing. The potential wound healing activities of extracts and individual phytochemicals from Aspilia africana were reviewed by Komakech et al. (2019). This genus is classified in the tribe Astereae. It comprises some 500 species which are to be found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. Several Aster species and cultivars are widely grown for ornamental purposes. Dorsey (1962) and Roed-Petersen & Hjorth (1976) referred to contact dermatitis from asters but provided no detail. Hausen (1979a) observed two patients with chrysanthemum allergy who reacted strongly (3+) to an aster extract. Many other similarly sensitised patients failed to react. Hausen & Osmundsen (1983) observed a positive patch test reaction to an aster in a 63 year old hobby gardener who was sensitised to feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip.). Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to an unidentified Aster species in 3 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. It should be noted that China asters are, botanically, Callistephus chinensis (L.) Nees, and therefore, reports of contact dermatitis from colloquially named asters should be interpreted with caution. Lewis & Elvin-Lewis (1977) record that many species of Aster are poisonous on ingestion because of their content of sesquiterpene lactones.
[Information available but not yet included in database] According to Merzouki et al. (2000), the powdered root is used in NW Moroccan traditional medicine (where the plant is known locally as addad) as an external application in the treatment of skin abscesses and warts.
An extract of Atractylodes lancea rhizomes was found to have phototoxic activity against three test micro-organisms; a similar extract of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz. was active against only one of the micro-organisms (Wat et al. 1980b). [Further information available but not yet included in database] According to Mabberley (2017), the genus comprises 19 species of often thorny trees and shrubs found in South America, and in particular in the tropical Andes. They are occasionally grown elsewhere as greenhouse ornamentals for their showy flowers. The genus has recently been re-classified in a new sub-family, namely the Barnadesioideae, which is characterised in part by the presence of axillary spines of a type unique in the family (Bremer & Jansen 1992). The spines are able to inflict mechanical injury. The following species are representative:
Sesquiterpene lactones, taxonomic markers typically found in the Compositae, are seemingly absent from the Barnadesioideae (Ccana-Ccapatinta et al. 2018). This common weed of lawns and meadows, cultivars of which are also grown as ornamental plants in herbaceous borders, is an occasional cause of pollinosis (Wodehouse 1971). A landscape gardener suffered solar urticaria, rhinitis from daisy pollen, and dichromate sensitivity (Wilkinson et al. 1980). Hausen (1979a) observed four patients with positive patch test reactions (1+ & 2+) to an extract of daisy in 16 tested, most of whom gave strongly positive (3+ & 4+) reactions to Chrysanthemum indicum L. Hausen (1979a) also reported that the plant has a moderate sensitising capacity in guinea pigs. This genus comprises some 90 species of thistle-like herbs and shrubs which are found in Africa. α-Terthienyl, a phototoxic thiophene [see Tagetes L. below], has been reported from the following species (Bohlmann et al. 1973, Gommers & Voor in't Holt 1976, Bohlmann et al. 1977a, Bohlmann et al. 1979a):
α-Terthienyl, a phototoxic thiophene [see Tagetes L. below], has been reported from the roots of this species (Bohlmann et al. 1979a). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] This genus is classified in the tribe Heliantheae. It comprises some 230 species of cosmopolitan distribution. Several species are known in horticulture as bur-marigold or stick-tight. Barbed bristles are present on the fruits and can cause mechanical injury (Muenscher 1951). The barbs on the fruits of Bidens species have caused dermatitis in South Africa (Scott 1967).
Irritancy has been ascribed to B. bipinnata (Pammel 1911) and B. frondosa (MacDougal 1894, Coulter 1904). Handling B. frondosa caused itching (White 1887). In traditional Chinese medicine, the juice is expressed from the plant and applied externally to spider bites, scorpion stings, and unhealthy granulations of wounds (Stuart 1911). The barbed fruits can adhere to clothing or to the hair of animals (Maiden 1895, Morton 1962b). Pammel (1911) regarded this plant as a local irritant. The plant yields phenylheptatriyne which shows ultra-violet mediated membrane disrupting activity on human red blood cells (Wat et al. 1980a) and erythrocytes (MacRae et al. 1980b). The compound is phototoxic to bacteria, fungi, and human fibroblasts cells in culture (Wat et al. 1979), but not to T4BOr' bacteriophage (Warren et al. 1980) nor to human skin (Towers et al. 1979). Despite its phototoxicity, phenylheptatriyne did not induce sister chromatid exchanges nor chromosome aberrations in Syrian hamster BHK-21 cells (MacRae et al. 1980a). This evidence suggests an effect on membranes rather than on DNA. The plant is eaten (Morton 1962b). According to Stuart (1911), a decoction of the plant is used in Chinese traditional medicine as a wash to the skin in the treatment of chronic eczema. He also stated that the plant yields a black dye which is used for colouring the whiskers. An extract of the plant exhibited weak phototoxic activity against one of three test micro-organisms (Wat et al. 1980b). Ai or ngai camphor is derived from this species. It has been reported from South-West Africa that touching this plant has produced urticaria, but this appears to be an isolated instance (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). It should be noted that according to the Royal Horticultural Society Horticultural Database, a plant purchased through the nursery trade as Brachyglottis greyi (or Senecio greyi, Brachyglottis laxifolia, or Senecio laxifolius) may actually be Brachyglottis cv. Sunshine (syn. Senecio cv. Sunshine), one of the so-called Dunedin Group hybrids originally derived [acc. to Wikipedia] from Senecio greyi Hook.f., Senecio laxifolius Buchanan, and Senecio compactus Kirk. [Further information available but not yet included in database] Senecio hectori was reported to cause skin irritation in New Zealand (Maiden 1918a). The wood is injurious to wood-workers because of its alkaloid content (Aston 1923, Briggs 1946). Honey produced from the nectar of this plant is poisonous. The Maoris never take wild honey when the rangiora is in blossom (Aston 1923). Novak & Kolinsky (1960) reported dermatitis from a plant in this genus. This species is used in Salvadorian folk medicine as a topical bacteriocide. Juanislamin and other germacranolide sesquiterpene lactones, bearing the structural features associated with contact allergenicity in this class of compounds (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971), have been isolated from this plant (Borges del Castillo et al. 1981). Twenty or thirty species are found in the Mediterranean region and east to Iran. The genus is classified in the tribe Calenduleae. Calendula as a constituent of a proprietary remedy produced contact dermatitis in four individuals who had plant dermatitis (Underwood & Gaul 1948). This species is commonly grown for its ornamental flowers. The plant yields an oil that may be used in perfumery (Arctander 1960). Irritancy has been ascribed both to the plant itself and to a tincture made from it (Behl et al. 1966). A positive patch test reaction to an extract of this species was observed by Hausen (1981b) in a florist who was sensitised to Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. However, Hausen & Osmundsen (1983) observed a negative reaction in an investigation of a similarly sensitised male hobby gardener. [Further information available but not yet included in database] The cultivated asters are occasional causes of pollinosis (Wodehouse 1971). The genus is monotypic and is classified in the tribe Astereae. The plant grows naturally in China and Japan.
This is a shrub with aromatic foliage that is found naturally in southern Australia, but which may be found in cultivation as a greenhouse ornamental. The dermatological literature refers to the plant by its older name Humea elegans. The plant emits a scent when bruised. A woman who rubbed the leaves on her veil for their scent developed vesicular dermatitis of the nose and cheeks (Carrington Hearnden 1902). Maiden (1913b) noted that the foliage of this plant can elicit eczema and that several cases of eye irritation had been reported in those working with the plant or standing on the leeward side of a clump when a breeze was blowing. Patch tests to the leaves were positive in two gardeners who developed dermatitis from contact with the plant (Cronin 1968, Rook 1970). Control tests with the plant to exclude irritancy were carried out on four subjects by Rook (1970). This species produces small, "almost invisible" burs which are annoying if they get into blankets and are very troublesome to the feet of dogs (Maiden 1895). α-Terthienyl, a phototoxic thiophene [see Tagetes L. below], has been isolated from the roots of this species (Sprio et al. 1972, Selva et al. 1978). The genus is classified in the tribe Cynareae. One hundred species are found in Europe, the Mediterranean region, and in Asia. These plants are thistles bearing sharp spines on the leaves and flowers. The genus is very close to Cirsium Mill. Wimmer (1926) refers to the spine-tips of the leaves of this species as a possible cause of mechanical injury. This species, and others in the genus, has spiny leaves.
This plant, which is occasionally grown as a hardy annual, has spiny leaves. The seeds are the source of safflower oil. An orange dye is obtained from the flowers. It occurs as a mixture of yellow (principally hydroxysafflor yellow A) and red (principally carthamin) pigments. The florets have have been used in traditional Far Eastern medicine for hair growth promotion. Junlatat & Sripanidkulchai (2014) examined the effects on hair growth both in vitro and following topical application in vivo in mice of a hydroxysafflor yellow A-rich ethanolic extract prepared from the florets. They observed suppression of a factor associated with hair loss in vitro and also hair growth stimulation in vivo.An extract of the flowers was strongly phototoxic to three test micro-organisms (Wat et al. 1980b), suggesting the presence of polyacetylenes and/or thiophenes (Towers et al. 1977b). See also Bidens pilosa L. above and Tagetes L. below. Noyes (1899) described seven cases of eczema from this plant. Irritation occurred in skin folds where pollen or particles of bark accumulated. The disorder has been known in Australia as "mountain itch" (Maiden 1909b). Badham (1931) also refers to contact dermatitis from this species. According to Cleland (1943), the plant causes dermatitis of the exposed skin and also conjunctivitis. Persons employed in clearing the plant from the ground or working in Cassinia scrub developed dermatitis only after being exposed to it for a considerable time (Cleland 1943), suggesting an allergic effect. Bee keepers can develop itching from propolis originating from this plant (Rayment 1935). One species occurs in Australia, and about 600 are found in Europe and northern Africa to northern India and northern China, and in temperate North and South America. The genus is classified in the tribe Cynareae. The spines on many of the species can cause mechanical injury (Pammel 1911) In California, USA, the yellow star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis L.) is responsible in horses for nigropallidal encephalomalacia, otherwise known as "chewing disease" (Herz 1978). An extract of the plant produced positive patch test reactions in two of 50 patients in the southern United States who had "weed dermatitis" (Shelmire 1940). The plant is irritant (Pammel 1911). Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been isolated from this species. Roed-Petersen & Hjorth (1976) recorded four positive patch test reactions to this species in 21 patients tested. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin on this species in 5 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Thune & Solberg (1980) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from this species in a photosensitive and lichen-allergic patient. The powdered leaf is used as a snuff. The plant is thought to cause swollen eyes and nostrils in sheep (Hurst 1942). In Australia, Turner (1980) observed a weakly positive patch test reaction 96 hours after applying this species to the skin of a 68 year old male patient with dermatitis attributable to picking firebush (Ixodia achillaeoides R.Br.) and wild artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L.).
Eupatoriopicrin, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971), has been isolated from these species (Geissman & Atala 1971).
This is a strong-smelling perennial cultivated for ornamental purposes and for its fragrant herbage. The dried yellow flowers are used to make a herbal tea, which is a domestic remedy for indigestion, and in the preparation of wet compresses for the skin, which are sometimes applied externally in inflammation (Wade 1977). It is also incorporated into creams and ointments for application to wounds, sore nipples, and nappy rash (Wren 1988). Chamomile tea is available in health food stores under many brand names. Tea made from chamomile flower heads may cause contact dermatitis, anaphylaxis, and other severe hypersensitivity reactions in patients allergic to ragweed (Ambrosia L.), Aster L., Chrysanthemum L., or other members of the family Compositae. Patients allergic to any member of this plant family should avoid teas made from floral heads of golden rod (Solidago L.), marigold (Tagetes L.), and yarrow (Achillea L.) (Benner & Lee 1973). Hausen (1979a) reported that the plant has a high sensitising potential in guinea pigs. Contact with the plant has caused contact dermatitis in farmers (Hissard 1946), in a plant collector (Babini 1949), and in pharmaceutical chemists (Schwartz et al. 1957). Compresses of chamomile (Jadassohn & Zaruski 1927) and chamomile ointment (Beetz et al. 1971a) can cause dermatitis; drinking chamomile tea can exacerbate contact dermatitis (Babini 1949). Weakly positive patch test reactions to the petals have been observed in three patients reacting more strongly to Anthemis arvensis L. (Möslein 1963). Van Ketel (1982) obtained positive patch test responses to Chamaemelum nobile in a patient with contact allergy caused by Matricaria chamomilla. Cross-sensitivity to Chrysanthemum L. and other members of the Compositae has also been observed (Leipold 1938, Hausen 1979a). Fivoli (1936) obtained positive patch test reactions with the blossoms, negative with the leaves of Roman chamomile. One of 290 (Meneghini et al. 1971) and 3 of 200 patients (Beetz et al. 1971a) showed positive patch test reactions to Roman chamomile oil and to a chloroform extract of Roman chamomile respectively. An anaphylactoid reaction from a tea (Benner & Lee 1973) and asthma from an enema (Jaeggy 1931) have been reported. A fragrance raw material known as Roman chamomile oil, English chamomile oil, or chamomile oil is prepared by steam distillation of the dried flowers of this species. The oil, when applied under occlusion to rabbit skin for 24 hours, was moderately irritating. When applied at a dilution of 4% in petrolatum to human skin in a 48 hour closed patch test, no irritant reactions were observed. A maximisation test failed to sensitise any of 25 volunteers (Opdyke 1974). No phototoxic effects could be demonstrated with the undiluted oil (Forbes et al. 1977). The plant yields nobilin, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone. Willis (1973) considered the family to comprise about 200 species found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. The number of accepted species was then for a while reduced to just 4-5 annuals found in North Africa and Europe (Mabberley 1987), other species being referred to Dendranthema (DC.) Des Moul., Balsamita Mill., Leucanthemum Mill., Tanacetum L., etc. However, the change in the scientific name for the autumn-flowering chrysanthemums of horticulture from Chrysanthemum to Dendranthema was highly controversial, and a proposal to conserve Chrysanthemum L. with Chrysanthemum indicum L. as the conserved type species (Trehane 1995) was eventually accepted at the XVI International Botanical Congress in 1999. The intended consequence of this ruling was to bring Dendranthema species back into Chrysanthemum L., with the effect that the genus size increased to 30-35 species (Mabberley 2017). A few of the species are of major commercial and horticultural importance. Extensive hybridisation between and within some of the species has produced a plethora of named cultivars of obscure parentage. Chromosome studies suggest that several crosses and back crosses have occurred since the original cross, which may have occurred over 2000 years ago (Gorer 1970). Even though most accounts of the historical development of chrysanthemums do not differ essentially in detail, botanical nomenclature has been a source of confusion. The very popular chrysanthemum of florists and horticulturalists has been named variously as Chrysanthemum × hortorum, Chrysanthemum morifolium, Chrysanthemum indicum, Chrysanthemum sinense, and (inappropriately) Chrysanthemum grandiflorum. Gosling (1979) in The Chrysanthemum Manual of the National Chrysanthemum Society (of Britain), acknowledging that several species of chrysanthemum have contributed to the development of the modern chrysanthemum, noted that "the name Chrysanthemum morifolium is now used as the scientific name for all autumn-flowering perennial chrysanthemums". But since the parentage of any particular specimen of a chrysanthemum encountered in a florist's shop or in a chrysanthemum grower's garden is not likely to be readily ascertainable, it may be inappropriate even to apply the binominal Chrysanthemum morifolium. According to Chittenden & Synge (1977), Korean chrysanthemums are derived from a cross between Chrysanthemum coreanum (H.Lév. & Vaniot) Nakai ex T.Mori [= Chrysanthemum oreastrum Hance; see below] and Chrysanthemum cv. Mrs. Phil Page, the latter being a cultivar of Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. [see below]. The Korean (or Rubellum) hybrids are recognised as Chrysanthemum × rubellum Sealy [see below]. Nomenclatural confusion continues to emanate from the plant nursery trade and from seedsmen, examples being the offering for sale of seed to grow a "florist's chrysanthemum" described both as Chrysanthemum × grandiflorum and as Chrysanthemum × koreanum ‘Fanfare Improved’;a and seed to grow Chrysanthemum indicum ‘Korean Hybrids’.b Ideally, all investigations, whether dermatological or phytochemical, should seek to specify the name of the cultivar being studied but it may be prudent to not assign the plant to a particular species unless this detail is known, thus: Chrysanthemum cv. Annie Curry (or better still Chrysanthemum Incurved Group ‘Annie Curry’). To add to this taxonomic and nomenclatural confusion, the vast majority of reports of skin reactions to these plants fail to identify precisely either which cultivar(s) was (were) responsible, or which cultivar(s) was (were) used for subsequent patch testing. Thus, numerous reports of dermatitis from unidentified Chrysanthemum species or cultivars may be cited. These include reports by Dawson (1906), Harrison (1906), Waugh in Discussion of Lain (1918), Goldstein (1931), Nightingale (1931), MacCormac (1932), Osborne & Putnam (1932), Reyn (1933), Photinos (1934), Schönfeld (1936), Leipold (1938), Bonnevie (1939), Davies (1939), Shelmire (1939b), Coste et al. (1942), Ellerbroek (1952), Blamoutier (1956), Becker & O'Brien (1959), Curtis (1960), Paschoud (1965), Hjorth (1966a), Robertson & Mitchell (1967), Agrup (1969), Burry (1969), Hjorth (1969), Sugai et al. (1980), and Rattanarak et al. (2019). Many more reports refer to patch testing with "chrysanthemum" in patients with a dermatosis of some other plant-induced aetiology. For example, Farmer (1941) tested a 56-year old female, who was suspected to have become sensitised to capeweed [?= Arctotheca calendula (L.) K.Lewin], with "chrysanthemum pollen" and "Exhibition border [?= chrysanthemum] leaf". Fisher (1952) investigated reactivity to chrysanthemum in a series of 18 case of ragweed dermatitis without identifying either the species of ragweed or the species / cultivar of chrysanthemum. Hausen & Schulz (1978a) described a case of a female florist, who ran a flower shop for 12 years. In this time she developed contact allergy to [unspecified species of] chrysanthemums and primroses (fam. Primulaceae), because of which she had to quit her job. In this time she suffered occasionally from sore throat (pharyngitis) and also stomach ache after ingestion of tea prepared from [unspecified species of] yarrow or chamomile. Weeding in her garden was frequently followed by pruritus and swelling of the face. Patch testing produced positive reactions to [unspecified species of] chrysanthemum, sunflower, arnica, chamomile, yarrow, tansy, mugwort (all members of the Compositae), and a liverwort belonging to the genus Frullania Raddi (fam. Frullaniaceae). Chrysanthemums are popular plants in Japan but dermatitis from them appears to be rare in that country. In addition to the two cases in florists reported by Sugai et al. (1980), earlier cases in rural growers of chrysanthemums, which referred to the cultivar ‘Kinriki’, were reported by Bando et al. (1976). According to Sugai et al. (1980), most Japanese people enjoy eating chrysanthemum leaves and floating the flower on their soup because of its aroma, but these authors may have been referring to Glebionis coronaria (L.) Cass. ex Spach. As a result of this oral ingestion of the leaves and some essences of the flowers, it is believed by these authors that Japanese people may have some immunoregulation of contact sensitivity to chrysanthemum. The phytochemistry of the genus, and the role of sesquiterpene lactones was reviewed by Schulz et al. (1975). See also Chrysanthemum indicum L. and Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. below. Many authors have referred to the chrysanthemum of florists as being Chrysanthemum indicum. However, the true Chrysanthemum indicum has a head of small, single, yellow daisies, and looks rather like a superior hawkweed (Hieracium L.). It is not, in itself, a very attractive plant (Gorer 1970). In the absence of evidence to the contrary, reports of dermatitis from Chrysanthemum indicum, especially if referring also to the chrysanthemum of florists, should be interpreted with scepticism, since the plant to which the authors are probably referring is a cultivar of Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. [see below]. Similarly, phytochemical investigations are likely to produce conflicting results reflecting the mis-identification or simply the inherent variability of members of hybrid swarms. Hoffmann (1904a, 1904b) (who referred to a particular cultivar named ‘Marke Grunerwald’ and suggested that the skin irritating component was kikuöl [= kiku oil; its volatile oil]), Pilot (1932) (who observed a skin reaction following patch testing with a small pompon chrysanthemum but not with a large "show type" chrysanthemum), Schlammadinger (1933), and Macháraček (1964) all named Chrysanthemum indicum as a cause of dermatitis but were probably referring to the autumn-flowering chrysanthemum of florists, Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl., as was also Hausen (1979b) in a review of phytoeczematogens. Several cases of florist's chrysanthemum allergy ascribed to Chrysanthemum indicum were described by Hausen (1979a) who noted cross-sensitivity variously to camomile (Chamaemelum nobile All.), yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.), arnica (Arnica montana L.), daisy (Bellis perennis L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F.H.Wigg.), an unidentified aster, and frullania (a liverwort; fam. Frullaniaceae). Hausen (1981b) described a 40 year old female florist who was apparently sensitised to sesquiterpene lactones by contact with Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. She also reacted strongly to patch tests with an extract from a plant described as Chrysanthemum indicum. One of the four sensitising sesquiterpene lactones in plant material referred to this taxon was found to be arteglasin A, which has previously been isolated from Artemisia douglasiana Besser (Hausen et al. 1975, Hausen & Schulz 1976). Hausen & Schulz (1973, 1976), and Schulz et al. (1975), investigated [? misidentified] Chrysanthemum indicum for its contact allergens. Hausen & Schulz (1976) observed weak positive patch test reactions to chrysartemin B in guinea pigs sensitised with a raw extract from a florist's chrysanthemum identified, possibly incorrectly, as Chrysanthemum indicum. The presence has also been reported of potentially contact allergenic terpenes (see Karlberg et al. 2013) including Δ-3-carene, limonene, and caryophyllene and the lignan sesamin (Demura 1961, de Pascual-T. et al. 1980) in plants described as cultivars of Chrysanthemum indicum. These compounds are known to be elicitors of allergic contact dermatitis present in, for example, turpentine oil (see Pinaceae) and in sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae). However, Schulz et al. (1975) could find no sensitivity to oil of turpentine nor its oxidation products in 5 patients with contact sensitivity to chrysanthemums. See also Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl. below.
Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been isolated from this species.
The chrysanthemum of florists was at one time thought to have arisen from a cross between Chrysanthemum indicum L. and Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat., and accordingly was given the name Chrysanthemum hortorum (Miller et al. 1919, Gorer 1970). Interestingly, in his account of the historical development of chrysanthemums, Gosling (1979) did not even mention the name Chrysanthemum hortorum, but asserted that the "two most important ancestors of the chrysanthemum (C. morifolium) are undoubtedly Chrysanthemum indicum and Chrysanthemum sinense". And confusingly, in addition to the use of one or other of the several synonyms here provided, some reports in the dermatological literature refer to the chrysanthemum of florists incorrectly as Chrysanthemum indicum [see above]. With the advent of molecular phylogeny as a scientific discipline, it has now become possible to investigate the origins of chrysanthemum cultivars. Thus, Ma et al. (2020) concluded that cultivated chrysanthemums originated from multiple hybridisations involving several paternal species rather than only two or a few wild species, with an extinct species and its subsequent cultivars serving as the maternal parents. More specifically, their study established that Chrysanthemum indicum L., Chrysanthemum zawadskii [= Chrysanthemum zawadzkii Herbich], Chrysanthemum dichrum (C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek., Chrysanthemum nankingense Hand.-Mazz., Chrysanthemum argyrophyllum Y.Ling, and Chrysanthemum vestitum (Hemsl.) Stapf were likely directly or indirectly involved as paternal species of most of the chrysanthemum cultivars they examined. However, molecular phylogenetic studies reveal only the outcomes of breeding programmes and not the processes used to produce new cultivars. Thus, as well as by simple cross-pollination, new cultivars may arise spontaneously ("sports") or can be produced by treatment of plant parts with physical (X-rays; gamma rays) or chemical (colchicine) mutagens (see Datta & Janakiram 2015). Referring to the garden chrysanthemum as Chrysanthemum sinense, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) citing an earlier source noted that the plant is said to be irritant to the extent of producing inflammation of the skin. Various (usually unspecified) cultivars referred to this taxon have caused dermatitis and/or have elicited positive patch test reactions in patients being investigated for contact allergy. The following reports may be cited: Rook (1960), Rook (1961b), Mitchell (1969), Burry et al. (1973), and Burry (1979). Patients with contact sensitivity to cultivars of Chrysanthemum × morifolium will give positive patch test reactions to a number of sesquiterpene lactones, including alantolactone, ambrosin, arbusculin A, damsin, 8-deoxycumambrin, parthenolide, and psilostachyin (Hausen & Schulz 1975, Bleumink et al. 1976, Campolmi et al. 1978, Sertoli et al. 1985). The potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones chlorochrymorin, chrysartemin A, and chrysartemin B have been reported from Chrysanthemum morifolium. Campolmi et al. (1978, 1979) claimed to find alantolactone in chrysanthemum but their findings were disputed by Benezra et al. (1978) and by Hausen (1978d). However, instances of "cultivar specificity", i.e. contact sensitivity to some cultivars and lack of sensitivity to others has been reported by Olivier & Renkin (1954), Rook (1961b), Bleumink et al. (1973a), Malten (1973), and Mitchell (1974a), clearly pointing to the existence of phytochemical variation between cultivars. This finding can be of importance to a flower grower who may be able to continue growing cultivars to which he/she is not reactive. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from Chrysanthemum × morifolium in 6 of 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome [PD-AR]. Frain-Bell et al. (1979) had earlier referred [seemingly incorrectly] to 9 of 69 patients with PD-AR having contact allergic sensitivity on skin patch testing to an extract of Chrysanthemum × morifolium. Burry (1980a) observed a weakly positive patch test reaction to Chrysanthemum × morifolium in a 75-year old patient who had been admitted to hospital because of a severe exacerbation of a condition that had been diagnosed four years previously as photodermatitis.
A florist had dermatitis from Chrysanthemum coreanum; patch tests produced positive reactions in the patient, negative in two controls. The patient also reacted to Chrysanthemum sinensis [= Chrysanthemum × sinense, see above] cultivar C. Turner (Sertoli & Fabbri 1974). Note that this report, which was a personal communication, may well refer to a Korean (or Rubellum) hybrid [see below] rather than the species Chrysanthemum coreanum; and the reference to "cultivar C. Turner" may well be a misrepresentation of "Crisantemo Turner", which translates from Italian to "Chrysanthemum Turner", the cultivar in question possibly being a white-flowered "Turner chrysanthemum" or "William Turner chrysanthemum" better described as Chrysanthemum Incurved Group ‘Turner’.a In an investigation of nine patient with strong skin reactions to "chrysanthemums of florists", Bleumink et al. (1973a) observed positive patch test reactions in six of the patients to alcoholic extracts of the leaves and/or flowers of a variety they described as Chrysanthemum Rubellum, Duchess of Edinburgh (better described as Chrysanthemum Rubellum Group ‘Duchess of Edinburgh’).a Kaalsiekte, a syndrome involving alopecia, severe diarrhoea, and also acute conjunctivitis, rhinitis, and keratitis occurs in kids and lambs whose mothers eat Chrysocoma tenuifolia during pregnancy, the toxin passing to the offspring through the milk with the mother frequently showing no signs of poisoning. The toxicity of the plant, which is native to southern Africa, has been noted to show geographic variation (Steyn 1934, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). This South American genus comprising about 20 species of evergreen shrubs, as a member of the sub-family Barnadesioideae, is characterised in part by the presence of axillary spines of a type unique in the family (Ezcurra 1985, Padin et al. 2015). The spines are able to inflict mechanical injury. The following species are representative:
Sesquiterpene lactones, taxonomic markers typically found in the Compositae, are seemingly absent from the Barnadesioideae (Ccana-Ccapatinta et al. 2018).
Both of these species is grown as pot-herbs; their blanched leaves are used in salads. The roots of C. intybus are the source of the chicory used as an additive to coffee (Coffea L., fam. Rubiaceae). Bonnevie (1948) reported contact dermatitis in persons engaged in the preparation of a coffee additive from C. intybus. A grocer who had recurrent contact dermatitis of the hands and forearms was found to be contact sensitive to both C. endivia and C. intybus, and also to Lactuca sativa var. longifolia hort. (the romaine lettuce). A positive patch test reaction to alantolactone, negative in controls, was observed (Vail & Mitchell 1973). Krook (1977) described four cases (3 female; 1 male) of occupational contact dermatitis from lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Two showed immediate vesicular reactions to lettuce, and two showed contact urticaria to both lettuce and endive which was confirmed by scratch testing. Cross-sensitivity variously to Ambrosia elatior L. (see Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.), Tanacetum vulgare L., Parthenium hysterophorus L., and Achillea millefolium L. was also found. Friis (1973) reported a case of a greengrocer who was contact sensitive to C. intybus and to C. intybus var. foliosum hort. Tests in controls were negative. Other cases of occupational contact dermatitis from chicory, endive, and lettuce were described by Friis et al. (1975) and Lahti (1980). Malten (1983) described a case of a female cichory farm worker who suffered dermatitis of the arms, face, and V of the neck from September to April. Patch testing with the root and leaves of the Brussels Witloof cultivar confirmed the diagnosis. Malten also observed that the allergen (hapten) apparently penetrated rubber gloves. A florist with chrysanthemum allergy gave positive patch test reactions (2+) to C. intybus and also to three other members of the Compositae (Hausen 1979a). Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to cichory in 8 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Potentially allergenic guaianolides have been reported from Cichorium intybus. Fifty species are to be found in Africa and Madagascar. The genus is classified in the tribe Senecioneae, and is closely related to the genus Senecio L. into which very many species have been transferred. The cineraria of florists, which is commonly grown for decorative purposes, is derived from Pericallis × hybrida B.Nord., of which many varieties and cultivars are known. Of 302 persons tested with [an unidentified] cineraria leaf, 1.7% showed positive reactions. Fregert & Hjorth (1969) concluded that some species are marginal irritants. The genus of 150 species, which are found in northern temperate regions, is closely allied to the genus Carduus L. It is classified in the tribe Cynareae. The spines of some species can cause mechanical injury. Transient papular urticaria can result from skin contact (Ross 1972) and conjunctival nodules from eye contact (Duke-Elder & MacFaul 1972b).
Pammel (1911) records that this species can cause mechanical injury. 14-Hydroxycostunolide, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone, has been reported from this species. The genus Cnicus L., which is classified in the tribe Calenduleae, is monotypic. The blessed thistle is found in the Mediterranean region but is also cultivated as an ornamental plant. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the plant. The spiny leaves may cause mechanical injury. The genus comprises some 60 species which are found in temperate and sub-tropical regions. Bohlmann & Jakupovic (1979) could find no sesquiterpene lactones in C. pinnata Kuntze, C. obscura DC., or C. ulmifolia Kuntze.
Burry & Kloot (1982) consider that airborne dusts formed by the breakdown of senescent tissues of this and other species in the Compositae are the causative agents in Australian bush dermatitis. Burry (1979) described the case of a patient in South Australia with dermatitis from fleabane. Positive patch test reactions to ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya DC.), Shasta daisy (Leucanthemum × superbum D.H.Kent), stinkwort (Dittrichia graveolens Greuter, syn. Inula graveolens Desf.), dandelion (Taraxacum officinale F.H.Wigg.), capeweed (Arctotheca calendula Levyn), Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat., and alantolactone, as well as to fleabane flowers, stems and leaves, were obtained. Sertoli et al. (1978) reported allergic contact dermatitis to fleabane, Inula viscosa Dryander (see Dittrichia viscosa Greuter), and Salvia officinalis L. (fam. Labiatae) in a 65 year old male.
This species has been reported to irritate the skin of persons who handle it (White 1887, Pammel 1911, Pope 1968) and the dust of the powdered leaf is also irritating (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Lovell et al. (1955) observed strong (4+) patch test reactions to Leptilon canadense oil and to ragweed oil (see Ambrosia L.) in a patient with allergies to various tree pollen oils who presented with an airborne contact dermatitis. In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", one of 50 patients showed a positive patch test reaction to an extract of the plant (Shelmire 1939a). Patch tests carried out using the leaves of this species crushed in a small quantity of normal saline elicited no positive reactions in 7 contact dermatitis patients tested in New Delhi, India (Singh et al. 1978). The plant yields an oil of perfumery (Arctander 1960). Oil of fleabane or oil of erigeron derived from this plant is composed mainly of limonene, and is irritant to the skin and eyes, but less so than oil of turpentine (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Bohlmann & Jakupovic (1979) could find no sesquiterpene lactones in this species. Some 120 species are to be found in the Americas and tropical Africa. A few species are cultivated for their decorative flowers. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from an unnamed Coreopsis species in 8 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. The genus is classified in the tribe Heliantheae. Twenty five species are found in tropical and subtropical America and the West Indies. Several species, notably C. bipinnatus Cav. and C. diversifolius Otto are grown in gardens for their decorative flowers. Sniffing a Cosmos flower caused symptoms of pollinosis in a patient who also reacted in this way to Tagetes (Biederman 1937). Becker & O'Brien (1959) reported four positive patch test reactions to this plant; clinical details were not given.
Costunolide, a potentially allergenic germacranolide, has been reported from these species.
Centipeda orbicularis, when dry, causes irritation of the nasal mucous membrane (Maiden 1909b). This species has been reported to contain α-terthienyl (Bohlmann et al. 1973), a phototoxic thiophene [see Tagetes L. below]. Cynaropicrin, deacylcynaropicrin, and muricatin, three potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones, have been reported from this species.
The cardoon and the globe artichoke are commonly grown as vegetables for their edible parts — the leaf-stalks and midribs of the former, the fleshy bases to the scales on the flower heads of the latter. They have in the past been regarded as separate species (Cynara cardunculus L. and Cynara scolymus L. respectively). Because of the observed more or less continuous range of morphological variation between typical wild Cynara cardunculus and cultivars of the cardoon and of the artichoke, Wiklund (1992) considered them to be best placed in a single species, namely Cynara cardunculus. Accordingly, interpretation of the literature requires an awareness of whether a study is referring to the wild form or to a cultigen / cultivar, there being good evidence [see below] that cultivar specificity may be a significant issue in, for example, patch testing. Market gardeners, vegetable sellers, and food handlers (both occupationally and domestically) have been affected by dermatitis of the hands, upper limbs, and face following contact with these vegetables, with positive patch test reactions to the roots and stem, negative to the leaves having been reported (Gougerot & Seringe 1936, Sidi et al. 1950, Vallet 1964, Meding 1983). The earliest report may be that of Davezac & Frèche (1908) who described an erythematous eruption occupying the whole face of a lady who had peeled and eaten artichokes. In a case described by Santori (1932), a positive patch test reaction was obtained with an ether extract. A woman who picked globe artichokes whilst dressed in night attire developed a widespread linear bullous eruption. Another of the cases reported by (Burry et al. (1973) describes dermatitis of exposed areas attributable to "vapour" released from wild artichokes whilst they were being cut down. Indeed, several of their case reports clearly show dermatitis of exposed areas suggestive of airborne contact dermatitis along with positive patch test reactions to wild artichoke and other composite plants that are indicative of cross- or concomitant sensitisation. The wider literature describes further cases with periorbital and facial symptoms associated with exposure to artichokes. Thus, Turner (1980) described a case in Australia of a 68-year old dry-flower arranger with recurrent facial dermatitis, the severity of which was exacerbated after collecting this species. Patch testing with this plant produced a 2+ reaction after 96 hours; 1+ reactions to Ambrosia psilostachya DC., Ixodia achillaeoides R.Br., and Centipeda thespidioides F.Muell. were also observed. All tests were negative in a control. Whilst only one of the cases of Australian bush dermatitis described by Burry et al. (1973) was seemingly primarily attributable to exposure to wild artichoke, three further cases not obviously attributable to this plant nevertheless reacted to it on patch testing with the plant material. Cross- or concomitant sensitivity to other members of the Compositae was observed, variously, to:
It should be noted that no formal botanical identification of the plant material used for patch was reported, nor was any testing of controls. Burry & Kloot (1982) consider that airborne dusts formed by the breakdown of senescent tissues of the wild artichoke (Cynara cardunculus), the globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus), and other species in the Compositae are the causative agents of Australian bush dermatitis, a condition that occurs in elderly men working in the bush where no specific Compositae source of the dermatitis may be found. They believed that the initiating sensitivities come from close contact with composite weeds, but the continuation of the dermatitis depends upon contact with windborne dusts. The guaianolide sesquiterpene lactones cynaropicrin, dehydrocynaropicrin, and grosheimin, which are recognised as being potential contact allergens (see Mitchell & Dupuis 1971), have been reported to occur in both Cynara cardunculus and Cynara scolymus (Schneider & Thiele 1974). These authors noted that whilst cynaropicrin appears to occur in all bitter races of the artichoke, the occurrence of dehydrocynaropicrin and grosheimin varies with race or geographic origin. Thus, Samek et al. (1971) found that cynaropicrin is accompanied by grosheimin in artichoke leaves of Italian origin and by dehydrocynaropicrin in leaves of Polish origin. A more extensive investigation of the sesquiterpene lactone profile of 19 named artichoke cultivars has been carried out by Rouphael et al. (2016). Artichokes also contain phenolic substances with antioxidant activity. Rouphael et al. (2016) found that cultivars ‘Campagnano’, ‘Grato 1’, and ‘Violetto di Provenza’ were the richest in polyphenols and presented the highest antioxidant activity, whereas ‘Blanca de Tudela’ and ‘Carderas’ were characterised by a high sesquiterpene lactone content. Wang et al. (2003) investigated three named cultivars, ‘Imperial Star’, ‘Green Globe’, and ‘Violet’, identifying cynarin [= 1,3-dicaffeoylquinic acid] as the most active agent in their DPPH [= diphenylpicrylhydrazyl] radical-scavenging assay. Radical-scavenging antioxidant activity is another chemical characteristic that is believed to confer contact allergenic potential (see Schmidt 2007). [Further information available but not yet included in database] [Information available but not yet included in database] Some 27 species originate from Central America, but are scarcely ever seen in cultivation. The vast majority of dahlias grown for their ornamental flowers are of hybrid origin, usually of obscure parentage. Many thousands of such cultivars have been described, of which a few hundred are available commercially. D. rosea Cav. (syn. D. variabilis Desf.) and D. juarezii hort. (the cactus dahlia) are the chief parent species, with D. pinnata Cav. and D. coccinea Cav. also being involved in the evolution of the modern cultivars. The genus is classified in the tribe Heliantheae. A gardener's boy, aged 15 years, who had worked for three years in a dahlia nursery, developed dermatitis of the face and hands. Patch tests with leaves and flowers were negative, but there was a strong reaction to the tuber (Vryman 1933). A recurrent summer eruption in a woman was traced to a dahlia; the leaf was found to produce a positive patch test reaction in the patient, negative in controls (Calnan 1973a). Calnan (1978b) also described the case of a female (55 year old) market gardener who had recurrent dermatitis of the hands, extensor surfaces of the arms, and around the mouth and eyelids. Patch tests to dahlia flower gave a 2+ response; chrysanthemum and primula (fam. Primulaceae) both gave 1+ responses. Cueva & Mingramm (1955) mentioned that three species of Dahlia in Mexico were capable of causing dermatitis. Cross-sensitivity to several members of the Compositae including a plant described as Dahlia variabilis was found in patients with contact allergy to liverworts of the genus Frullania Raddi, fam. Frullaniaceae (Fernandez de Corres & Corrales Torres 1978). It is probable that the authors were referring to an otherwise unidentified dahlia cultivar. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from an unidentified Dahlia in 5 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. McCord (1962) noted the commercial availability of an oleoresin extract of this species for patch testing. However, there appear to be no reports of dermatitis from this plant. This South American genus comprising 36 species, as a member of the sub-family Barnadesioideae, is characterised in part by the presence of axillary spines of a type unique in the family (Cabrera 1959, Ferreira et al. 2019). The spines are able to inflict mechanical injury. The following species are representative:
Sesquiterpene lactones, taxonomic markers typically found in the Compositae, are seemingly absent from the Barnadesioideae (Ccana-Ccapatinta et al. 2018). This species, which grows almost exclusively over nickel-rich substrates in a limited area of Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), is capable of hyperaccumulating nickel. A concentration of 2100 ppm in the dried plant material has been reported (Brooks 1980). The contact sensitising capacity of nickel and its salts is well documented (Malten et al. 1976, Cronin 1980).
α-Terthienyl, a phototoxic thiophene [see Tagetes L. below], has been reported from these species (Bohlmann et al. 1973, Gommers & Voor in't Holt 1976).
Beath et al. (1939a) noted that on a moderately seleniferous soil, Machaeranthera ramosa, which has a native range from western and central Canada to northern Mexico,a has yielded 1600 µg/g (ppm) selenium. See Xylorhiza glabriuscula Nutt. below for further information. This is a recently described genus of 2 species previously classified in the genera Erigeron L. and Inula L. The barbed pappuses can cause mechanical injury. Dermatitis occurred in workmen who pulled up this weed, only some of those exposed being affected (Maiden 1918a). The plant has been reported to produce dermatitis venenata in Australia (Cleland 1925, 1931). MacPherson (1932) reported dermatitis in a father and two sons. Other reports (Helms 1897, Wettenhall 1925, Seddon & Carne 1928, Hurst 1942, Scott 1967) suggest irritancy to man and animals. Burry et al. (1973) reported four cases of contact sensitivity to the plant in 13 patients with "Australian bush dermatitis". Positive patch test reactions to the leaf and cross-sensitivity to other members of the Compositae were observed. They found that the dried leaf was not irritant by patch test. Later, Burry (1979) reported a positive patch test reaction to stinkwort (Inula graveolens) in a patient who had "fleabane dermatitis" (see Conyza bonariensis Cronq.); and Burry (1980a) observed a weakly positive patch test reaction to stinkwort in a 75 year old female patient who had been admitted to hospital with a severe exacerbation of a condition that had been diagnosed four years previously as photodermatitis. Burry & Kloot (1982) consider that airborne dusts formed by the breakdown of senescent tissues of this and other species of Compositae are the causative agents of Australian bush dermatitis. These authors also give a distribution map for this species in Australia. A fluorescent volatile oil is obtained from the plant (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). A potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone has been reported from this species.
Sertoli et al. (1978) reported contact sensitivity to this species, Conyza bonariensis Cronq., and Salvia officinalis L. (fam. Labiatae) in a 65-year old male [see also Conyza bonariensis Cronq. above]. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. [Further information available but not yet included in database] This South American genus comprising two species, as a member of the sub-family Barnadesioideae, is characterised in part by the presence of axillary spines of a type unique in the family (Bremer & Jansen 1992, Katinas & Stuessy 1997). The spines are able to inflict mechanical injury. The following species have been described:
Sesquiterpene lactones, taxonomic markers typically found in the Compositae, are seemingly absent from the Barnadesioideae (Ccana-Ccapatinta et al. 2018).
A woman developed acute eczema of the palms, wrists, and face after handling this plant (Worsley 1898). In the central Rocky Mountains, this species is responsible for a disorder in sheep known as "spewing sickness", which can be reproduced experimentally by administration of hymenovin (Herz 1978). Hymenovin and other potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. Dyssodia papposa was listed by Pammel (1911) as an irritant plant. The roots contain α-terthienyl (Bohlmann et al. 1976) which is phototoxic to human skin (see Tagetes L.). Three species are found in eastern North America. The root of E. purpurea Moench is used in herbal remedies for the treatment of minor skin ailments. Underwood & Gaul (1948) observed four patients who reacted positively to patch tests with Echinacea, presumably E. purpurea. They had previously suffered plant dermatitis. About 100 species occur in eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. The occurrence of α-terthienyl, a phototoxic thiophene [see Tagetes L. below], has been reported from the following species (Bohlmann et al. 1973, Gommers & Voor in't Holt 1976):
Extracts of the plants had phototoxic activity against three test micro-organisms (Wat et al. 1980b). The leaves of E. prostrata contain α-terthienyl (Gommers & Voor in't Holt 1976) which is phototoxic to human skin (see Tagetes L.). The hairs on the stem are irritating to the skin (von Reis Altschul 1973). Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. [Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database]
[Information available but not yet included in database] Biting ants have been found inhabiting hollow stems of this American species (Wheeler 1942). In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", one of 50 patients showed a positive patch test reaction to an extract of this plant (Shelmire 1939a). The seed is said to cause inflammation of the eye (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). In tropical Africa and Madagascar, the plant has been used as a counter irritant (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). This recently described genus comprises four species previously included in Eupatorium L. A potentially allergenic costunolide derivative has been reported from this species. Wat et al. (1980b) found that an extract of this species was only weakly active against one of three test micro-organisms when tested for phototoxicity. Recurrent seasonal dermatitis of the face and neck with a positive patch test reaction to an ether extract of the flowers was reported by Brier (1940). Hausen & Osmundsen (1983) observed a weakly positive patch test reaction to an extract of this species in a 63 year old hobby gardener who was sensitised to feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip.). Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. A female developed an itching rash on the neck an upper chest several hours after gathering up and packing the dried flowers; the rash persisted for several days (Morton 1975). Wat et al. (1980b) tested an extract of this species for phototoxicity against three test micro-organisms. Activity against the two fungal micro-organisms was observed, suggesting the presence of polyacetylenes. Ingestion of dairy products, particularly milk, derived from livestock that has grazed on the plant can result in human poisoning (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis 1977). In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", three of 50 patients showed positive patch test reactions to an extract of this plant (Shelmire 1939a). Shelmire (1940) subsequently stated that the plant was an infrequent sensistiser.
A plant chemist developed dermatitis from Oxytenia acerosa. Patch tests to the plant and to an alcoholic extract were positive, negative to an ether extract (Schwartz & Warren 1940). Coronopilin, a potentially contact allergenic sesquiterpene lactone, has been reported from Iva acerosa (Farkas et al. 1966, Fischer et al. 1979). [Information available but not yet included in database]
The roots of both of these species have been reported to contain the phototoxic thiophene α-terthienyl (Bohlmann et al. 1973, Bohlmann et al. 1978a, Bohlmann & Kleine 1963, Gommers & Voor in't Holt 1976). See also Tagetes L. About 80 species from Central America are now included in this genus, many having been moved from Eupatorium L. Bohlmann et al. (1977b) report the isolation of sesamin from this species. Sesamin is known for its role in sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae) contact allergy. This South American genus, as a member of the sub-family Barnadesioideae, is characterised in part by the presence of axillary spines of a type unique in the family (Funk & Roque 2011, Ferreira et al. 2019). The spines are able to inflict mechanical injury. The following species have been described:
Sesquiterpene lactones, taxonomic markers typically found in the Compositae, are seemingly absent from the Barnadesioideae (Ccana-Ccapatinta et al. 2018). Some 26 species are found in North America, a further 2 in temperate South America. The genus is classified in the tribe Helenieae. The popularly grown perennial border plants known as gaillardias are cultivars mostly derived from G. aristata Pursh. They may also be called Gaillardia × grandiflora hort. or G. gigantea, G. hybrida, G. maxima, etc. — names that are of no botanical standing. Three cases of contact dermatitis from Gaillardia were reported by Rostenberg & Good (1935); one of the three patients was also contact sensitive to an Ambrosia L. and pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum L. sp.). Patients who were contact sensitive to Gaillardia also showed positive patch test reactions to Helenium L., Parthenium L., and Tanacetum L. species (Mitchell 1972). Tan & Mitchell (1968) observed positive patch test reactions to an unspecified Gaillardia species in photosensitive and lichen allergic patients with so-called "cedar-poisoning" who were also sensitive to various members of the Compositae. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971) have been reported from a number of species:
Other species are considered in the monographs below. A female, aged 73 years, had dermatitis of 16 years duration affecting the hands and face; blistering of the hands had previously been noted. Patch tests with plants from her neighbour's garden were applied. Strongly positive reactions to the flower, leaf, and stem of G. aristata were observed, with weakly positive reactions to G. pulchella Foug. The neighbour gave the plants to the patient for indoor decoration (Burry 1980b). Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", 7 of 50 patients were found to be contact sensitive to this species (Shelmire 1939a). A flower-binder, who had recurrent contact dermatitis from this plant, reacted positively to a patch test with the pollen (Zschunke 1955). Burry (1980b) observed weakly positive patch test reactions to this species in a patient who reacted strongly to G. aristata Pursh. α-Terthienyl, which is phototoxic to human skin [see Tagetes L. below], has been reported from this species (Gommers & Voor in't Holt 1976) as also have a number of potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones.
This species has become a common weed in Europe (Willis 1973). In two cases of occupational contact dermatitis from the plant, positive patch test reactions were observed from the stem, leaves, and petals. One of the patients reacted strongly to this plant but did not react to Anthemis arvensis L.; the other patient reacted weakly to the stems and leaves of this plant, but strongly to Anthemis arvensis (Möslein 1963). Hausen (1979a) reported that the plant has high sensitising capacity in guinea pigs. The trichome exudate from this species growing in California, USA yielded gerin, a eudesmane methyl ester. Gerin lacks the lactone ring with an exocyclic methylene group that is normally found in contact allergenic sesquiterpenoids from the Compositae, but was nevertheless found to elicit dermatitis in individuals sensitised to sesquiterpene lactones (Rodriguez & Epstein — unpublished observation, cited by Rodriguez et al. 1979).
Robert (1951) described a case of seasonal facial eczema in a male who had visited a business at which he came into the close proximity of a bouquet of "yellow marguerites". The flower in question were identified as "Chrysanthemum carnatum" by a botanist. However, these are not normally yellow, but multicoloured. So, it is possible that the plant was mis-identified.
The plant is highly valued in the Orient for its strong flavour. The leaves are cooked like spinach or in soup, or eaten raw in salads (Richter 1981). [Further information available but not yet included in database] About 15 species are found in temperate regions of Australia. Some Australian Compositae-sensitive patients show positive patch test reactions to some of these plants (Kirk 1977). Sixty species occur in the Americas. The genus is classified in the tribe Astereae. An unidentified species of Grindelia, which was a constituent of a proprietary remedy, produced positive patch test reactions in four patients who had previously suffered from plant-induced dermatitis (Underwood & Gaul 1948). Grindelia robusta Nutt. has been used as a folk remedy for poison ivy (Toxicodendron Mill., fam. Anacardiaceae) dermatitis.
The leaves, flowering parts, and fruits of this perennial thistle are spiny (Hind 2013). It occurs naturally in the Middle East and Turkey but is also cultivated, mostly as a food plant but also for its semi-dry inflorescences, which are collected before dehiscence for use as filters in the water collecting entry of cisterns, and also as brooms. The young leaf bases are considered a delicacy. They are used in the local cuisine of Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian Authority, being collected in large amounts from the wild because market prices are very high. Natural populations of the plant in the area are dwindling due to over-utilisation, having become extinct in some areas. The plant was entered into Israel’s list of plants protected by law, and is also partly protected in the Palestinian Authority. However, illegal collecting is very common. In order to meet demand, it has been cultivated since the turn of the century both in Israel and in the Palestinian Authority. The spines present a great challenge in cultivation (Vitek et al. 2017). The genus Gundelia L. has been considered by some authorities to be monotypic (Vitek et al. 2017), and by other authorities to comprise up to four (Mabberley 2017), twelve, or sixteen species. All are strongly spiny thistles capable of inflicting mechanical injury.
This perennial desert shrub, with a native range from south-western & southern central USA to Mexico,a is known to be potentially toxic / abortifacient to grazing livestock (Gardner et al. 2020). Beath (1943) found the plant also to be a selenium hyperaccumulator, recording 1287 µg/g (ppm) selenium in plants rooted in the alluvium overlying the Salt Wash sandstone member of the Morrison Formation near Thompson, Utah. Thus, if grazed by livestock in areas where seleniferous soils are to be found, selenosis may develop in addition to other symptoms of poisoning attributable to this plant. See Xylorhiza glabriuscula Nutt. below for further information.
Referring to Gynura pinnatifida, Stuart (1911) noted that the plant [root] provides the traditional Chinese medicine known as san qi (三七), a name that is, confusingly, also used for Sanchi ginseng [Radix Notoginseng; Panax notoginseng (Burkill) F.H.Chen (fam. Araliaceae)]. Other names for the crude drug include Gynura Root, Radix Gynurae Segeti, ju san qi (菊三七), tu san qi (土三七), and san qi cao (三七草). It has the property of causing the edges of wounds to adhere together. Vulnerary, styptic, astringent, and discutient properties of a very high degree are attributed to this drug. Stuart (1911) further notes that it is recommended in all forms of haemorrhage and wounds, including tiger and snake bites. Importantly, the plant is a recognised source of hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids and therefore is not safe to use orally (Zhu et al. 2021). The roots of this species contain α-terthienyl (Bohlmann et al. 1976), which is phototoxic to human skin [see Tagetes L. below].
Isocumambrin B, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone has been reported from this species. This genus of 40 species, all of which are native to western America, is classified in the tribe Helenieae. Calnan (1978a) described a patient with contact sensitivity to unidentified species of Helenium and Chrysanthemum L., who was also sensitive to alantolactone, balsam of Peru (from Myroxylon balsamum Harms, fam. Leguminosae), and colophony. Many of the species have been investigated for their sesquiterpene lactone content; potentially allergenic lactones have been reported from the following:
Other species are considered in the monographs below.
In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", 28 of 50 patients showed positive patch test reactions to an extract of Helenium tenuifolium (Shelmire 1939a). This species causes seasonal allergic contact dermatitis in Arkansas, occurring from spring to frost, but handling hay or silage during the winter may result in perennial symptoms. Honeycutt (1972) observed 14 cases; 13 were male, mostly farmers of average age 53 years. The face, neck, dorsa of the hands, forearms, ankles, and lower legs were affected with acute vesicular dermatitis proceeding to chronic lichenified dermatitis with flexural involvement resembling atopic dermatitis. Patch tests to an acetone extract of the plant produced produced positive reactions. The clinical features thus closely resembled Ambrosia dermatitis but only one of the 14 cases also reacted to extract from an Ambrosia L. species. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. The flowers have long been used as a sternutatory, and the whole plant is acrid and pungent (Chesnut 1898, Hurst 1942). Balyeat et al. (1932) reported contact dermatitis from this species. In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", 20 of 25 patients showed positive patch test reactions to an extract of the plant (Mackoff & Dahl 1951). These patients were also contact sensitive to some other members of the Compositae. In a further three cases, cross-sensitivity was observed between H. autumnale and species of Chrysanthemum L., Tanacetum L., and Ambrosia L. (Mitchell 1972). Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from this species in 4 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Thune & Solberg (1980) observed a positive patch test reaction to the oleoresin of this species in a photosensitive and lichen allergic patient. Several potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", 29 of 50 patients showed positive patch test reactions to an extract of this species (Shelmire 1939a). Several potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. The root is used by Nevada Indians as a counter-irritant (Train et al. 1957). This genus, which is classified in the tribe Heliantheae, comprises some 110 species native to the Americas. The tubers of Helianthus tuberosus L. provide Jerusalem artichokes. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from an unidentified Helianthus species in 5 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Dermatitis from sunflower (which may or may not have been a species of Helianthus) was reported by Dreyer (1906). Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the following species:
The name sunflower, when unsupported by a botanical name, usually refers to this species. The seeds of the common sunflower (H. annuus) are the source of an edible oil known as sunflower oil. Hausen (1979a) reported that the plant has a high sensitising capacity in guinea pigs. H. annuus may be a significant cause of dermatitis in countries where the plant is grown. Of 1197 patch tests with the leaves, Rávnay & Garazsi (1955) in Hungary observed 3.12% of positive reactions, mostly in female land-workers. A report of dermatitis in farmers from contact with sunflowers (Sneid 1955) is not well substantiated. Rajka (1948) reported an occupational dermatitis from sunflower seed with a positive patch test reaction to an aqueous extract of the seed. Greenberg & Lester (1954) refer briefly to dermatitis from picking sunflower seeds. In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", one of 50 patients had a positive patch test reaction to an extract of the plant (Shelmire 1940). Noussitou & Cordero (1951) report two patients who, working with sunflower seeds, presented an allergic dermatosis directly relatable to the pollen of the plant, as demonstrated by scratch test and passive transfer. Hausen & Osmundsen (1983) observed a positive patch test reaction to an extract of H. annuus (5% in petrolatum) in a hobby gardener who had become sensitised to Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. A 1% dilution of sunflower extract was observed to elicit positive patch test reactions in several patients with contact sensitivity to Chrysanthemum indicum L. (Hausen 1979a). Annuithrin, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone has been reported from H. annuus var. giganteus hort. Some 500 species are distributed in southern Europe, tropical and southern Africa, Madagascar, south-west Asia, southern India, and Australia. About 200 species occur in southern Africa. The genus is classified in the tribe Inuleae. The dried flower-heads of some species are used as "everlasting flowers" or "immortelles" in dried flower arrangements. Since they retain their colour, the flowers of Helichrysum stoechas DC. (popularly known as goldilocks) are used in pot-pourri (Wren 1975). The hairs on the seeds can produce small, yellow conjunctival nodules (Duke-Elder & MacFaul 1972). This species yields an oil of perfumery (Furia and Bellanca 1971). Helichrysum oil, which is also known as everlasting flower oil or immortelle oil, and is prepared by steam distillation of the plant material, was found to be slightly irritating when applied to guinea pig skin for 24 hours under occlusion. At a dilution of 4% in petrolatum, neither irritant (48 hour closed patch test) nor sensitising (maximisation test) properties could be demonstrated in 26 human volunteers. Phototoxicity also could not be demonstrated with the undiluted oil applied to the skin of mice and swine (Opdyke 1978, p. 769). Another fragrance raw material, immortelle absolute (also known as helichrysum absolute or everlasting absolute), is prepared by solvent extraction of the plant material. This was found to be moderately irritant when applied to rabbit skin for 24 hours under occlusion, but otherwise no irritant, sensitising, nor phototoxic effects could be demonstrated (Opdyke 1979, p. 821). The plant, displayed in the dried state as "everlasting flowers", produced keratitis and a nodose type of conjunctivitis, apparently from mechanical rather than toxic action. The lesion was not reproducible in rabbits (Karbe 1923). Mair (1968) received a report of recurrent eczema from contact with the plant. The affected individual developed blistering of the mouth after trying to eat the leaves in order to dispel the allergy. An unaffected individual noted a sharp taste and stinging of the tongue from nibbling the plant. Bohlmann et al. (1980a) found α-terthienyl in the leaves of this species, but not in 24 other species of Helichrysum. α-Terthienyl has phototoxic properties when applied to human skin [see Tagetes L. below]. In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", two of 50 patients gave positive patch test reactions to an extract of this plant (Shelmire 1939a). Perhaps 5000 apomictic micro-species or 1000 macro-species occur in temperate regions, excluding Australasia, and on tropical mountains. The genus is classified in the tribe Lactuceae (Cichorieae).
This is a hybrid species, intermediate between H. caespitosum Dumort. and H. lactucella Wallr. The plant, used as rabbit food, caused recurrent springtime dermatitis of the face and forearms in a rabbit breeder (Bellonne 1948). The juice derived from the glands of the plant is very irritating to the skin (von Reis Altschul 1973). Reynolds & Rodriguez (1981) demonstrated the presence of mexicanin I, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971), in the trichome exudate of this species, thus providing support for the inclusion of the genus Hulsea in the tribe Heliantheae rather than in the tribe Senecioneae. About 200 species are to be found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The genus is classified in the tribe Inuleae. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the following species:
Other species are considered in the monographs below. Exposure to hay containing this plant caused dermatitis on exposed skin. Patch test reactions were positive to this species and to Inula germanica L., negative to four other Inula species (Hegyi 1967). Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. Hegyi (1967) reported a positive patch test reaction to this species [see Inula britannica L. above]. Germanins A and B, two potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones, have been reported from this species. Alantolactone, otherwise known as alant camphor, elecampane camphor, inula camphor, or helenin, is obtained from the rhizomes of this species. It has been used both orally and rectally as an anthelmintic (Wade 1977). In NW Moroccan traditional medicine, the leaves are used externally as an astringent and antiseptic (Merzouki et al. 2000). Piyankova & Nugmanova (1975) described cases of allergic dermatitis following contact with the plant. Apparently, it is widely used in the Soviet Union for self-treatment of skin ailments. A sesquiterpene lactone, alantolactone, derived from it is an active sensitiser at a concentration of 1% in petrolatum (Hjorth 1970, Mitchell JC 1970 — unpublished observation). Both alantolactone and the co-occurring isoalantolactone were reported by Stampf et al. (1982) to be sensitisers in guinea pigs. It has previously been demonstrated (Stampf et al. 1978) that cross-sensitivity reactions between alantolactone and isoalantolactone could be demonstrated in both guinea pigs and in man. Mitchell et al. (1970) observed positive patch test reactions to alantolactone in some individuals who were contact sensitive to various members of the Compositae and to liverworts of the genus Frullania Raddi (fam. Frullaniaceae). Alantolactone is toxic to cultured human lymphocytes (Dupuis & Brisson 1976), but this activity does not seem to depend on the presence of a methylene group on the lactone. Dupuis et al. (1974) described the reaction of alantolactone with some amino acids. Subsequently, Dupuis et al. (1980) induced contact sensitivity in guinea pigs with an alantolactone-skin protein conjugate. The fragrance raw material alantroot oil, otherwise known as elecampane oil or oil of Inula, was found to be non-irritant but a strong sensitiser when applied to the skin of human volunteers at a concentration of 4% in petrolatum (Opdyke 1976, p. 307). Some extremely severe reactions were observed. Experimental sensitisation of humans to alantroot oil was described by Marzulli & Maibach (1980). In addition to alantolactone and isoalantolactone, a number of other potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the plant. This species provides mano roots, which have often been found as adulterants of kuth roots (Saussurea costus Lipsch.). Mano contains sesquiterpene lactones, principally alantolactone and isoalantolactone (Arora et al. 1980). Both of these compounds are known to be contact sensitisers (Stampf et al. 1982). An extract of the root was found to have phototoxic and weak antibiotic properties against three test micro-organisms (Wat et al. 1980b), suggesting the presence of polyacetylenes and/or thiophenes [see Bidens pilosa L. above and Tagetes L. below]. 11,13-Dehydromatricarin (also known as dehydromatricarin A), a potentially allergenic guaianolide (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971), has been reported from Athanasia coronopifolia (Bohlmann & Zdero 1978). This genus of 15 species is classified in the tribe Heliantheae. It occurs in North and Central America and in the West Indies. Tan & Mitchell (1968) observed positive patch test reactions to an unspecified Iva species in photosensitive and lichen-allergic patients with so-called "cedar-poisoning" who were also sensitive to various members of the Compositae. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from a number of species:
Other species are considered in the monographs below. Smith et al. (1942) reported dermatitis from this plant. In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", 18 of 50 patients showed positive patch test reactions to an extract of the plant (Shelmire 1939a). Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. Contact sensitivity to this plant was reported by O'Quinn & Isbell (1969). Shelmire (1939a) observed no positive reactions to patch tests with an extract of this species in 50 patients with "weed dermatitis". This species produced a positive patch test reaction in a patient who had "weed dermatitis" (Williams et al. 1960). Williams et al. (1960) described a case of a 37 year old field worker with a history of recurring generalised dermatitis and pollinosis of 15 years duration. Patch tests with a "common marsh elder antigen" preparation, probably prepared from Iva fructescens L. var. oraris Bartlett, were negative. However, a patch test with a leaf from the locally common Iva microcephala produced a severely pruritic, later bullous, reaction. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. Contact dermatitis from this plant was reported by Huber & Harsh (1932). About two thirds of patients who had "weed dermatitis" showed positive patch test reactions to this species (Brunsting & Anderson 1934, Brunsting & Williams 1936, Mackoff & Dahl 1951). Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to an extract of this species in 5 from 43 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. Two species are recognised, Ixodia achillaeoides R.Br. and Ixodia flindersica Copley, the former being divided into three subspecies (Copley 1982). The genus is native to south-eastern Australia. Turner (1980) observed positive (1+) patch test reactions to this species in a 68 year old dried flower arranger (see also Cynara cardunculus L.).
According to Wren (1975) and others, probably from Thiselton Dyer (1888), the sterilized juice of Cineraria maritima has been used in the treatment of capsular and lenticular cataract of the eye. Schwartz et al. (1957) noted that Cineraria maritima "has an ash white fuzzy coating which can cause pruritus". Artemisia stelleriana Besser is also known by the common name dusty miller. Aerial parts of this species were found to contain no sesquiterpene lactones, but did contain a monoterpenoid 1,4-benzoquinone derivative (Bohlmann et al. 1981q) that may be considered to be potentially allergenic (Evans & Schmidt 1980).
[Information available but not yet included in database] About 100 species occur chiefly in temperate Eurasia, but some also extend the range to tropical and southern Africa. The genus is classified in the tribe Lactuceae (Cichorieae). Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the following species: Other species are considered in the monographs below. This species has been used as a popular remedy for poison ivy (Toxicodendron Mill., fam. Anacardiaceae) dermatitis (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis 1977). A number of cultivars of this species are widely grown in Britain and elsewhere for use in salads. The species is thought to be a cultivated form of Lactuca serriola L. Only the young plants are used for salad; once they begin to flower, they develop a bitter taste and then become useful as a herbal sedative. The dried juice of this species (and of L. virosa L.) is known as lactucarium. It was formerly used medicinally; it contains some hyoscyamine and has been noted to induce mydriasis (Grant 1974). Dermatitis from handling lettuce, together with urticaria from ingestion were reported by Rinkel & Balyeat (1932). Morris (1954) reported a positive patch test reaction to the leaf. The milky sap that exudes from the cut stems caused occupational contact dermatitis and conjunctivitis; hydroxybutyraldehyde which was applied to the stems may have been responsible for these effects (Schwartz et al. 1957). A gardener who had dermatitis from the mature plant showed positive patch test reactions to stem and leaf, and to aqueous and ethanolic extracts of fresh lettuce. Immature plants were innocuous (Krook 1973). Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from lettuce in 4 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Closson (1974) reported swelling of the oral mucosa and Eustachian tubes following ingestion of lettuce. Downing (in discussion of Templeton 1945) observed salad makers with dermatitis from contact with lettuce and from ingestion of lettuce. Friis et al. (1975) also reported occupational contact dermatitis from lettuce. Both immediate and delayed hypersensitivity to lettuce and endive (Cichorium L.) in food handlers, with some cross-sensitivity to certain other members of the Compositae, was reported by Krook (1977). Fregert & Sjöborg (1982) reported immediate hypersensitivity to lettuce in two female patients with mild hand dermatitis, cheilitis, and peri-oral dermatitis. The plant yields a sesquiterpene lactone (Yoshioka et al. 1973) that is potentially allergenic (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971). A greengrocer was contact sensitive to this plant and to cichory (see Cichorium L.) (Vail & Mitchell 1973). A patch test to the leaf was positive; negative in one control. The stem exudes an irritant milky sap (Schwartz et al. 1957). See also Lactuca sativa L. above. Several potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. Hausen (1979a) observed that this species had a weak sensitising capacity in guinea pigs. He also reported that an extract of this species produced a positive (1+) patch test reaction in a gardener with allergy to Chrysanthemum indicum L. who was also sensitive to arnica (Arnica montana L.), camomile (Chamaemelum nobile All.), and tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.).
This taxon is of hybrid origin, Kent (1990) describing its parentage as Leucanthemum lacustre Samp. × Leucanthemum maximum DC. According to another source, the plant is tetrahybrid derived from {{Leucanthemum vulgare Lam. × Leucanthemum maximum DC.} × Leucanthemum lacustre Samp.} × Nipponanthemum nipponicum Kitam. A number of named cultivars are grown commercially for the horticultural trade. The Shasta daisy has been confused with the daisy- or max-chrysanthemum, Leucanthemum maximum DC. (syn. Chrysanthemum maximum Ramond) in the dermatological literature. Shelmire (1940), Gottron & Schonfeld (1959), and Rook (1960) referred to dermatitis from Chrysanthemum maximum. Two from 13 patients with "Australian bush dermatitis" showed positive patch test reactions to Shasta daisy (Burry et al. 1973). Burry (1979) later reported a positive patch test reaction to Shasta daisy in a patient who had "fleabane dermatitis" (see Conyza bonariensis Cronq.).
This is an extremely variable species or species complex which has been divided up into a large number of sub-specific taxa. Dermatitis from this species was reported by Howe (1887), White (1887), Kren (1925), Oppenheim (1931), Bonnevie (1939), Ellerbroek (1952), Mackoff & Dahl (1951), and Scarzella (1958). Hausen (1981b) described a 40 year old female florist who was apparently sensitised to sesquiterpene lactones by contact with Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. She also reacted positively to patch tests with Chrysanthemum leucanthemum. An almost identical case of a 63 year old hobby gardener was reported by Hausen & Osmundsen (1983). Cross-sensitivity reactions between this species and liverworts of the genus Frullania Raddi (fam. Frullaniaceae) may also be observed (Fernandez de Corres & Corrales Torres 1978, Hausen & Osmundsen 1983). [Information available but not yet included in database] The fragrance raw materials, deertongue absolute and deertongue incolore (also known as liatris oleoresin), are prepared by extraction of the leaves of this species. No irritant, sensitising, phototoxic, nor photosensitising properties could be demonstrated with either material (Opdyke 1976, p. 743; 1979, p. 763).
[Information available but not yet included in database] About 40 species are found in southern Europe and western Asia, ten in southern Africa, and two in western North America. The genus is classified in the tribe Anthemideae. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the following species:
The use of preparations of the herb in traditional medicine as an antiseptic douche, as a gargle for apthous ulcers, or as a poultice or compress for cuts, bruises, ulcers and other skin disorders has been reported by Stuart (1979). The volatile oil from the plant comprises up to 50% (−)-α-bisabolol, which has been demonstrated to have antiinflammatory activity in rats (Jakovlev & von Schlichtegroll 1969). Wren (1988) provides an overview of the various biological activities of this and the many other substances that have been isolated from the plant. An extract of the flowers was found to have antibiotic and phototoxic properties against one of three test micro-organisms, correlating with the presence of polyacetylenes and thiophenes (Wat et al. 1980). Chamomile tea prepared from this species was found to have a marked hypnotic effect (Gould et al. 1973). Hausen (1979a) reported that this plant has a moderate sensitising capacity in guinea pigs. Weakly positive patch test reactions to the petals have been observed in two patients reacting more strongly to Anthemis arvensis L. (Möslein 1963). Beetz et al. (1971a) described German chamomile as a sensitiser. A 40 year old florist who had allergic contact dermatitis from Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. showed a positive patch test reaction to an extract of German chamomile and 9 other members of the family Compositae (Hausen 1981b). A very similar case of a 63 year old hobby gardener was described by Hausen & Osmundsen (1983). A 27 year old florist showed strong positive reactions to the petals and leaves of Matricaria chamomilla, weaker reactions to Chamaemelum nobile All. She also reacted to Kamillosan™ ointment (van Ketel 1982). van Ketel (1987) reported a further case of allergy to Matricaria chamomilla resulting from occupational exposure. Cross-sensitivity reactions between this species, Laurus nobilis L. (fam. Lauraceae), and liverworts of the genus Frullania Raddi (fam. Frullaniaceae) may also be observed (Krauskopf & Amkov 1975, Fernandez de Corres & Corrales Torres 1978, Hausen & Osmundsen 1983). A fragrance raw material known as German chamomile oil, blue chamomile oil, or Hungarian chamomile oil is prepared by steam distillation of the flowers and stalks of this species. The oil, when applied under occlusion to rabbit skin for 24 hours, was moderately irritating. When applied at a dilution of 4% in petrolatum to human skin in a 48 hour closed patch test, no irritant reactions were observed. A maximisation test failed to sensitise any of 25 volunteers (Opdyke 1974). No phototoxic effects could be demonstrated with the undiluted oil (Forbes et al. 1977). The plant yields desacetylmatricarin which produced positive patch test reactions in a sesquiterpene lactone sensitive patient (Mitchell JC 1973 — unpublished observation).
The powdered plant is intensely irritant to the eyes and respiratory tract (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
The juice from the crushed young roots is irritant to the eyes (Irvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). A blistering, necrotic action in wounds results from its use in an arrow poison (Kerharo & Bouquet 1950). This southern African species produces caustic effects (Bryant 1909). α-Terthienyl, a phototoxic thiophene [see Tagetes L. below], has been reported from the roots of this species (Bohlmann & Grenz 1979). α-Terthienyl, a phototoxic thiophene [see Tagetes L. below], has been reported from the roots of this species, but was not found in the roots of M. acuminata Ruiz & Pav. (Bohlmann et al. 1979b).
Contact sensitivity to this plant and cross-sensitivity to other members of the Compositae was observed by Burry et al. (1973) in 4 from 13 patients with "Australian bush dermatitis". Some persons who hand pull the weed suffer dermatitis (Maiden 1912, Maiden 1918a).
[Information available but not yet included in database] The topical use of the contused herb and juice for cancerous affections of the skin (Piffard 1881) suggests irritancy. Onopordopicrin, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone, has been reported from this species.
This plant, which occurs naturally in Colorado, USA can accumulate selenium when growing in seleniferous soils, 3630 µg/g (ppm) selenium (dry weight) having been recorded in plants found by Apache Creek near Lascar (Beath et al. 1939b, White 2016). See Xylorhiza glabriuscula Nutt. below for further information.
This plant, which occurs naturally in Wyoming, USA can accumulate selenium when growing in seleniferous soils, 1422 µg/g (ppm) selenium (dry weight) having been recorded in plants found near Casper (Beath et al. 1940), and 9120 ppm having been recorded in plants growing in Albany County (White 2016). See Xylorhiza glabriuscula Nutt. below for further information.
As well as guaianolides lacking the structural features (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971) associated with contact allergenicity in this class of compounds, this European maritime species has been reported to contain sesamin (Sabri et al. 1983), a known elicitor of sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae) contact dermatitis. The genus Otanthus Hoffsgg. & Link is monotypic. This occasionally cultivated S.W. African succulent plant bears long spines (Ginns 1968). Fifteen species occur in America and the West Indies. One has recently been introduced to the Indian subcontinent and elsewhere. The genus is classified in the tribe Heliantheae. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the following species:
Other taxa are considered in the monographs below. Contact dermatitis from this species, with a positive patch test reaction, was reported by Smith & Hughes (1938). A sesquiterpene alcohol / cinnamic acid ester, named guayulin A, derived from the resin of the plant is a potent contact sensitiser for guinea pigs (Rodriguez et al. 1981). Guayulin A sensitised animals did not react to applications of its parent alcohol, nor to n-pentadecyl cinnamic acid ester, nor to costunolide. Weak cross-reactivity to guayulin B was observed. Rodriguez et al. (1981) also noted that guayule readily undergoes interspecific hybridisation with Parthenium incanum Kunth and with Parthenium tomentosum DC. var. stramonium. Preliminary investigations of crosses with the latter taxon indicate the presence of both guayulin A and stramonin B (a pseudoguaianolide) in the first generation hybrids. Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this species, but not to ligulatin B nor ligulatin C (both 0.01% in petrolatum), sesquiterpene lactones present in this species, was demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this species, and also to damsin (0.01% in petrolatum), one of the sesquiterpene lactones present in this species, has been demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this variety, and also to tetraneurin A (0.01% in petrolatum), one of the sesquiterpene lactones present in this variety, has been demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this variety, and also to conchosin A, conchosin B, and a mixture of conchosins C and D, (all 0.01% in petrolatum), sesquiterpene lactones present in this variety, has been demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this variety, and also to hymenin (0.01% in petrolatum), a sesquiterpene lactone present in this variety, has been demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this species, and also to damsin (0.01% in petrolatum), a sesquiterpene lactone present in this species, has been demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this variety, and also to tetraneurin C (0.01% in petrolatum), one of the sesquiterpene lactones present in this variety, has been demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this species, and also to damsin (0.01% in petrolatum), one of the sesquiterpene lactones present in this species, has been demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977).
"Weed dermatitis" from this species in the USA was reported by French (1930), Kahn & Grothaus (1936), and Ogden (1957). Shelmire (1939a) found that 27 of 50 patients showed positive patch test reactions to an extract of this plant. Brache & Aquino (1978) list this species as being among the 14 commonest causes of plant contact dermatitis in the Dominican Republic, where it is known as escobita amarga. Dermatitis from this species in India was reviewed by Towers et al. (1977a), Hausen (1978d), and by Fisher (1979a). Towers & Mitchell (1983) provide further discussion. Although indigenous to the Americas including the Caribbean region, this aggressive weed has spread in the last hundred years to Australia, Africa, and Asia (Towers et al. 1977a, Towers & Mitchell 1983). In India, an extensive outbreak of "weed dermatitis" involving perhaps 1000 patients with some deaths has been observed. The plant is believed to have been introduced into India in 1956. The outbreak has become a major health problem and also an agricultural problem because of the aggressiveness and prolific growth of the plant (Ranade 1971, Lonkar et al. 1974, Subba Rao et al. 1977, Siddiqui et al. 1978). Other authors describing the hazardous nature of the plant in India include Jayachandra (1971), Mani et al. (1975), Krishnamurthy et al. (1976), and Khosla & Sobti (1979). From Australia, Everist (1976) and Sullivan (1977) provide similar reports. Suggested methods of control of P. hysterophorus are discussed by Towers et al. (1977a) and by Hausen (1979d). Bhutani & Rao (1978) reported a photocontact dermatitis, resembling actinic reticuloid, in a 90 year old agricultural labourer. The lesions could be reproduced by applying a paste of the fresh plant to the skin, then exposing to light. Parthenin was not the causative agent. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin in 30 of 38 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Parthenin is considered to be the major allergen of the species (Lonkar et al. 1976). A number of other sesquiterpene lactones have also been isolated, including hymenin, coronopilin, hysterin, and tetraneurin A (Rodriguez et al. 1976b, Hausen 1978d, Sohi et al. 1979, Picman et al. 1980, Towers & Mitchell 1983). Their presence on the surface of wind-blown particles of dried plant material, including trichomes and pollen, is the primary cause of dermatitis although direct and unnoticed contact with the living plants may also be important (Hausen 1978d, Mitchell 1981c, Towers & Mitchell 1983). Shelmire (1939a) reported that a quantity of 19 grammes of oleoresinous material could be extracted from 450 grammes of the dried plant. Parthenin produced positive patch test reactions in 27 of 50 Indian patients who had "weed dermatitis" (Lonkar et al. 1974). In this study and those of Shelmire (1939a), and Mitchell et al. (1971), the patients showed positive patch test reactions to some other members of the Compositae. Singh et al. (1978) recorded 90 negative control patch tests to the plant, but also observed positive patch test reactions to the leaf in 24 out of 90 contact dermatitis patients. Sohi et al. (1979) reported positive patch test reactions to parthenin, tetraneurin A, and an incompletely characterised compound named hysterophorin in all of 50 patients with Parthenium dermatitis. However, details of patch test concentrations and vehicles were not given, nor were results in control subjects. The presence of parthenin and coronopilin in callus tissue of P. hysterophorus grown in culture has also been reported by Wickham et al. (1980). In a study on male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch., Rodriguez et al. (1977) demonstrated contact hypersensitivity in 2 of 6 subjects to an acetone extract of P. hysterophorus, and also to ambrosin, coronopilin, hymenin, and tetraneurin A (all 0.01% in petrolatum) but not parthenin. Subba Rao et al. (1978) observed that persons sensitised to parthenin did not react when patch tested with hymenin, its diastereomer. Guinea pigs sensitised to parthenin reacted to coronopilin and damsin but not to hymenin; reactions to some related lactones were negative (Picman et al. 1980, 1982). Parthenium hysterophorus L. can cause diarrhoea, excitability, muscular twitching, and death in cattle and buffaloes. Papular erythematous eruptions leading to alopecia and depigmentation are also observed (Narasimhan et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this species, and also to coronopilin (0.01% in petrolatum), one of the sesquiterpene lactones present in this species, was demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this species, and also to tetraneurin C (0.01% in petrolatum), one of the sesquiterpene lactones present in this species, has been demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977).
Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this variety, and also to tetraneurin C and damsin (both 0.01% in petrolatum), sesquiterpene lactones present in this variety, has been demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). This Mexican desert shrub is not known to contain sesquiterpene lactones, and an acetone extract of the plant produced negative patch test reactions in 6 male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this species, and also to coronopilin and confertin (both 0.01% in petrolatum), two of the sesquiterpene lactones present in this species, was demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this species, and also to oaxacin and tomentosin (both 0.01% in petrolatum), two of the sesquiterpene lactones present in this species, was demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). Contact hypersensitivity to an acetone extract of this variety, but not to stramonin A nor stramonin B (both 0.01% in petrolatum), two of the sesquiterpene lactones present in this species, was demonstrated in male volunteers previously sensitised to costus absolute derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. (Rodriguez et al. 1977). This was not unexpected since neither stramonin A nor stramonin B bear an exocyclic methylene group on the lactone ring, a feature associated with contact allergenicity in this class of compounds (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971). Stramonin A does, however, have significant cytotoxic activity against cultured KB cells (Grieco et al. 1978).
The cineraria of florists, which is commonly grown for decorative purposes, is derived from this taxon, of which many varieties and cultivars are known. Its parentage is unknown, but believed to include Pericallis lanata B.Nord., Pericallis cruenta Bolle, and possibly other species. It should not to be confused with true cinerarias derived from the genus Cineraria L. Further confusion with members to the genus Senecio L. to which the common names cineraria or ragwort are applied is also possible. [Further information available but not yet included in database] About 40 species are found from the Canaries and Mediterranean to central Asia and the Himalayas. The contact allergenic quinone, 2-(but-2-enyl-3-methyl)-1,4-benzoquinone, has been detected in the following species (Hausen & Schulz 1977a): See also Phagnalon saxatile Cass. This species yields 2-(but-2-enyl-3-methyl)-1,4-benzoquinone (Bohlmann & Kleine 1966), the contact allergenic properties of which (Schulz et al. 1968) have been demonstrated in guinea pigs using an open epicutaneous method (Hausen & Schulz 1977a). Strong cross-sensitivity to primin and deoxylapachol was also observed, with weak cross-reactivity to thymoquinone and mansonia quinone A. No cross-reactivity to a number of other quinones, including lapachol and the dalbergiones, could be demonstrated (Hausen & Schulz 1977a). Desacetylmatricarin (see Matricaria chamomilla L.) and a potentially allergenic guaianolide have been reported from this species. The plant or its oil causes skin eruptions in those who handle it (Towers 1978). This Mexican species is used by florists in assembling bouquets; it occasionally causes pollinosis in florists and greenhouse workers (Langley & Sayer 1937). About 50 species have been described from warmer regions of the Americas. α-Terthienyl, a phototoxic thiophene [see Tagetes L. below], has been reported from the following species (Chan et al. 1979, Bohlmann & Zdero 1979):
Referring to Gnaphalium obtusifolium, Remington et al. (1918) noted that preparations of the plant have been applied as a fomentation to bruises.
Senecio confusus is a frequent source of dermatitis in persons who trim the plant (Morton 1958), all parts of the plant being incriminated (Hardin & Arena 1974). About 90 species are found in southern Africa and Australia. The dried flower-heads retain their colour and form and are grown and sold as "everlasting flowers" or "immortelles". Contact sensitivity to Helipterum charsleyae was observed by Burry et al. (1973) in 3 of 13 patients with "Australian bush dermatitis". A 1+ patch test reaction to the "plant oil" from this species in a single patient with multiple allergies was reported by Lovell et al. (1955); similar cases were described by Shelmire (1939a) and by Mackoff & Dahl (1951). Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from this species in 6 of 55 patients with the photodermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. The name black-eyed Susan is also used for a species of Allamanda L. (fam. Apocynaceae). In an investigation of "Australian bush dermatitis", two patients from 13 were found to be contact sensitive to this plant and other members of the Compositae (Burry et al. 1973). The vast majority of the 400 or so species are found in temperate Asia. Odd single species occur in Europe, Australia, and western North America. The genus is classified in the tribe Cynareae. S. alpina DC., the European species, has scented flowers, an unusual feature in the family Compositae. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the following species:
The roots of this plant are the source of the crude drug Radix Aucklandiae or mu xiang used in Chinese traditional medicine. This species provides the fragrance raw materials known as costus oil, costus absolute, and costus concrete. At a concentration of 4% in petrolatum, all three products are active sensitisers, sensitising 25/25, 18/24, and 6/21 human volunteers respectively in a maximisation test (Opdyke 1974, p. 867). Experimental sensitisation of humans to costus oil was described by Marzulli & Maibach (1980). Hydrogenated costus oil failed to sensitise any of 20 volunteers; undiluted costus oil did not have demonstrable phototoxic properties (Opdyke 1974, p. 867). Cheminat et al. (1981a) described the preparation of a poly(aminoethylstyrene) resin with which (Cheminat et al. 1981b) the allergenic sesquiterpene lactones in costus oil may be removed. An extract of the root was found to have phototoxic activity against three test micro-organisms and also weak antibiotic properties against the two fungal organisms (Wat et al. 1980b). Costus root oil, at a dilution of 0.01%, produced no positive reactions in 148 patch test screened eczema patients (Rudner 1977). Burry (1980a) observed a strongly positive (3+) reaction to costus root oil in a 75 year old female who had been admitted to hospital with a severe exacerbation of a condition that had been diagnosed 4 years previously as photodermatitis. Individuals who were contact sensitive to costus absolute showed positive patch test reactions to some other members of the Compositae and other sesquiterpene lactone-containing plants in the families Frullaniaceae, Lauraceae, and Magnoliaceae (Mitchell 1974d, Mitchell & Epstein 1974). Thirteen costus-sensitive patients were patch tested with 38 sesquiterpene lactones belonging to five different skeletal classes. Cross-reactivity was observed both to lactones with the same carbon skeleton as the primary sensitiser (costunolide) and to lactones belonging to other classes. An exocylic α-methylene function on a γ-lactone ring was present both on compounds that cross-reacted and on those that did not. The difference between the two groups was that those sesquiterpene lactones giving negative responses were substituted at positions adjacent to the lactone ring (the C6 and/or C8 positions) with more or less bulky groups, and were generally more highly substituted with polar functional groups. It was concluded that such substitution may hinder binding of the reactive methylene group with skin proteins or the actual antigen with an immune receptor (Epstein et al. 1980). Members of this genus, which is perhaps the largest in the plant kingdom with its two to three thousand species, are of cosmopolitan distribution. The greatest number of species are to be found in southern Africa and in the Andean region of South America. The genus is classified in the tribe Senecioneae. Members of the genus typically contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids, many of which can cause irreversible liver damage and also lung tumours when ingested (Smith & Culvenor 1981). This species was noted as a cause of dermatitis in some persons who handled it (Benson 1973). Wren (1975) noted that a decoction of the plant has been used in folk medicine as an application to ulcers and wounds; that a poultice made from the herb has been applied to gouty swellings; and that an ointment prepared from the fresh plant has been used for inflammation of the eyes. Sesamin, known for its role in sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae) contact dermatitis, has been isolated from this South African species (Bohlmann et al. 1978b). Santonin is a crystalline lactone obtained from the dried, unexpanded flowerheads of this and several other species of Seriphidium (see Kelsey & Shafidazeh 1979). It was formerly used as an anthelmintic in the treatment of ascariasis (Wade 1977). Harrison (1906) included santonin in a list of drugs, applied externally or taken internally, which may cause dermatitis. The juice of the fresh herb applied as a dressing to wounds leaves a varnish-like coating as it dries (Quisumbing 1951). Orientin, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone, has been reported from this species.
The potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone xanthinin has been reported from Angianthus tomentosus (Fischer et al. 1979). Two species are indigenous to the Mediterranean region, but Silybum marianum Gaertn. is also distributed over the pampas of South America where it was introduced.
This plant has large prickly leaves, as is suggested by its common names, and leathery involucral bracts each bearing a stout spine. It can cause mechanical injury (Pammel 1911). Díaz (1976) describes the plant as caustic. Silymarin, which is obtained by extraction of the seeds, is used in Europe in the treatment of hepatic disorders. It contains silybin, a flavonoid with a protective function against experimentally induced hepatotoxicity induced by phalloidin (Wade 1977). The hairs on the stems have a slightly stinging property (von Reis Altschul 1973). There are about 100 species belonging to this genus which is classified in the tribe Astereae. All but one are natives of North America. The species are difficult to identify because of their tendency to hybridise both in the wild and under cultivation. Most commonly grown for ornamental purposes in herbaceous borders are hybrids and varieties of S. canadensis L. An intergeneric hybrid between an unknown Solidago species and Aster ptarmicoides Torr. & A.Gray, known as × Solidaster luteus Green (syns × Asterago lutea Everett, Aster hybridus E.H. Krause var. luteus hort.), is also very popular. White (1887) observed several cases of dermatitis in persons who handled Solidago species, but was unable to exclude inadvertent exposure to Toxicodendron Mill. (fam. Anacardiaceae). Two positive patch test reactions to Solidago were recorded by Hjorth (1968). Underwood & Gaul (1948) observed three cases of contact dermatitis from golden rod, with strongly positive patch test reactions. This plant from eastern North America has been used medicinally; the volatile oil derived from it is irritant and rubefacient (Anon 1884). The plant yields an oil of perfumery (Arctander 1960).
This taxon is widely naturalised in Europe. In an investigation of "weed dermatitis", three of 50 patients showed positive patch test reactions to an extract of this species (Shelmire 1939). This very variable European species has produced maculopapular dermatitis with itching and a burning sensation of the skin of field-workers three to twelve hours after hay making. The irritant is said to be carried by the pollen (Schwartz et al. 1957). The flower heads tend to accumulate extraneous pollen from other plants. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from this species in 8 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. In Australia, children developed papular urticaria on the exposed and pressure areas of the body from the hairy spines of the seeds. In affected patients, but not in controls, pricking the skin with the bindii seed reproduced the clinical lesions (Commens et al. 1982). About 60 species are found in tropical America, Africa, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and northern Australia. Spilanthol, which has local anaesthetic properties, has been isolated from the flowers of Spilanthes acmella Murray (Dalziel 1937).
Aster exilis has been described as an infrequent sensitiser but no clinical data were provided (Shelmire 1940).
Aster multiflorus has been described as an infrequent sensitiser but no clinical data were provided (Shelmire 1940).
Gardner & Bennetts (1956) list Erigeron linifolius DC. as a plant known or suspected of causing urticaria or skin irritation, probably from Maiden (1909b) who refers to a case of dermatitis caused by Erigeron linifolius DC. for which the common name "cobblers' pegs" was provided. Maiden (1917) later notes that Aster subulatus Michx. appears not to possess any injurious property. Confusingly, the common name "cobbler's pegs" is more usually applied to Bidens pilosa L. and some other Bidens L. species. There is the further possibility of confusion with Erigeron linifolius Willd., a synonym of Conyza bonariensis Cronq., for which the common name "bastard cobblers' pegs" was provided by Maiden (1895). Fifty species are natives of the warmer parts of the Americas. The genus is classified in the tribe Calenduleae. Gerarde (1636), referring to French and African Marigolds, cited Dodonaeus for the statement "I did see a boy whose lippes and mouth when he began to chew the floures did swell extremely, … we gaue to a cat the floures with their cups, tempered with fresh cheese, she forthwith mightely swelled, and a little while after died". Hjorth (1968) observed one positive patch test reaction in seven patients tested. Two intensely fluorescent compounds isolated from Tagetes roots were found to be phototoxic to Candida albicans, and were identified as bithienyl and α-terthienyl (Chan et al. 1975). α-Terthienyl (1% in ethanol) applied to the skin, covered with petrolatum, and irradiated with UVA light evoked, after about 15 minutes, erythema, blistering, and hyperpigmentation in a biphasic response (Chan et al. 1975, Towers et al. 1977b, Chan et al. 1977, Towers et al. 1979). This compound, together with a number of polyacetylenes, show UV-mediated phototoxicity to Candida albicans, but the polyacetylenes did not have phototoxic properties when applied to human skin (Towers et al. 1979). α-Terthienyl inhibits DNA repair in UV-irradiated human fibroblasts in culture (Stich et al. 1975), but did not induce chromosome abberations nor sister chromatid exchange in Syrian hamster (BKH-21) cells (MacRae et al. 1980a). It is also phototoxic to nematodes (Gommers 1972, Gommers & Geerlings 1973, Towers 1980).
α-Terthienyl, a phototoxic thiophene [see Tagetes L. above], has been reported from these species (Chan et al. 1979). African marigolds are widely grown for ornamental purposes, mostly as named cultivars. According to Behl et al. (1966), the leaves are irritant to some individuals. The odour of marigolds, in the absence of pollen, has been stated to cause symptoms of pollinosis and asthma in two patients respectively (Biederman 1937). A species of Cosmos Cav. had a similar effect in one of them. Crown of Gold marigold, which has odourless foliage, had no ill effect. Zechmeister & Sease (1947) isolated α-terthienyl from the petals of a "Lemon" variety of African marigold, but could not detect the compound in the petals of other varieties growing in the same field [see also Tagetes L. above]. Gommers & Voor in't Holt (1976) also reported the presence of α-terthienyl in this species.
α-Terthienyl, which is phototoxic to human skin [see Tagetes L. above], has been reported from these species (Bohlmann et al. 1973, Castro -A. and Castro -C. 1978, Bohlmann & Zdero 1979, Chan et al. 1979, Castro -C. & Munoz -C. 1982).
Maiden (1895) received a report that the juice or seeds of Tagetes glandulifera Schrank irritated the eyes; the irritation was said to last for three to four days. Also, the juice was irritating to the bare arms of men working amongst the plants, producing marks the same as freckles which later peeled off. Scott (1967) and Findlay (1967) report this species to be a common cause of dermatitis in South Africa. In three farmers, one female and two male, who had "weed dermatitis", positive patch test reactions to diluted extracts of the plant were observed. The active principle occurred in the acetone soluble fraction of the leaf and flower head. The fresh leaf and flower were both irritant by patch test. Patch tests to Tagetes erecta L. were negative. One of two patients who were tested showed a positive patch test reaction to pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium Vis.). Two patients showed positive patch test reactions to the flower, negative to the leaf, of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. Positive reactions were not augmented by exposure to ultraviolet light (Verhagen & Nyaga 1974). The leaf and stem were, however, found to be phototoxic for Candida albicans (Camm et al. 1975). If the stem of this plant punctures the skin, the wound is said to become septic (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962 citing Webb 1948a). The plant yields an oil of perfumery (Arctander 1960). α-Terthienyl, which is phototoxic to human skin [see Tagetes L. above], has been reported from the roots of this species (Chan et al. 1979). According to Behl et al. (1966), the leaves of this commonly cultivated plant are irritant to some persons. Patch tests carried out using the leaves of this species crushed in a small quantity of normal saline elicited positive reactions in 3 of 14 contact dermatitis patients tested in New Delhi, India (Singh et al. 1978). The cultivar ‘Legion of Honour’ was reported as a cause of contact dermatitis by Harrison (1906). The plant yields an oil of perfumery (Arctander 1960). α-Terthienyl, which is phototoxic to human skin [see Tagetes L. above], has been reported from this species (Bohlmann et al. 1973, Gommers & Voor in't Holt 1976).
α-Terthienyl, which is phototoxic to human skin [see Tagetes L. above], has been reported from these species (Bohlmann et al. 1973, Gommers & Voor in't Holt 1976, Chan et al. 1979). This genus is classified in the tribe Anthemideae. It comprises some 50–60 species of erect herbs which are to be found in northern temperate regions. Robertson & Mitchell (1967) referred to a case of allergic contact dermatitis to an unspecified Tanacetum species. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the following species:
Other species are considered in the monographs below.
Sonboli et al. (2012) referred to there being two subspecies of Tanacetum balsamita, " … the typical subspecies having discoid capitula and the subspecies balsamitoides having radiate ones … ". In other words, Tanacetum balsamita subsp. tanacetoides Boiss. has yellow button-shaped flowers (i.e. yellow disc florets) whilst Tanacetum balsamita var. balsamitoides P.D.Sell has white flowers with yellow centres (i.e. white ray florets + yellow disc florets). Other authorities (see Synonymic Checklists of the Vascular Plants of the World, Plants of the World Online; accessed August 2021) consider the latter to be a distinct species, namely Tanacetum balsamitoides Sch.Bip. This taxonomic confusion may be reflected in phytochemical and other studies purportedly carried out on one or other of these two varieties / subspecies. Lucidarme et al. (2008) described a case of contact allergy to a plant identified by the patient as "women's leaf". The patient, a 65-year old male cook presented with a painful and itchy dermatitis of his left index finger, and oedema of his right eyelids. He had applied a variety of antiseptic and antibiotic preparations to a minor trauma. He had also applied on a few occasions the leaf of a medicinal herb – women's leaf – that he grew in his garden and which he had previously used to treat plantar warts. Patch testing revealed sensitivity to sesquiterpene lactone mix (3+) and to Compositae mix (3+) as well as to the leaf (3+), but not to L-carvone or D-carvone. Samek et al. (1975, 1979) reported the isolation of eudesmanolide-type sesquiterpene lactones (erivanin, isoerivanin and dehydroisoerivanin) from the above-ground parts of this species growing in Poland. A different chemotype growing in Bulgaria yielded a further seven [potentially allergenic — see Mitchell & Dupuis (1971)] germacranolide-type sesquiterpene lactones (Todorova & Ognyanov 1989). The plant also yields a volatile oil. Again, various chemotypes have been found, including a carvone type, a camphor type, a camphor-thujone type, and a carvone-thujone type. A total of over 200 different volatile oil constituents have been identified from the various chemotypes (Bylaitė et al. 2000, Hassanpouraghdam et al. 2008). The enantiomeric form of the carvone in Tanacetum balsamita is (R)-(−)-carvone (or L-carvone), which has a minty smell (Hüsnü Can Başer et al. 2001). L-Carvone is a known contact allergen (Paulsen et al. 1993)
Dermatitis from this species has been described by McCord et al. (1921) and by Anon (1936) and Tonking (1936-7). The insecticide pyrethrum is derived mainly from the flowerheads (known as Dalmatian insect powder) of this species, but also from Tanacetum coccineum Grierson. Pyrethrum, in contact with the eye, may cause transient conjunctival oedema and hyperaemia (Grant 1974). Dermatitis from pyrethrum has been reported in field workers Sequeira (1936), warehousemen, chemists, and users of pyrethrum. Workers handling pyrethrum preparations in insecticide factories are liable to develop dermatitis, which is often of an allergic nature (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). The following literature may be cited: McCord et al. (1921), Abramowitz (1927), Chevalier (1928, 1930), Marceron (1928), Sulzberger & Weinberg (1930), Hopkins (1930), Badham (1931), Kersten & Laszlo (1931), Brunsting & Anderson (1934), Feinberg (1934), Beinhauer & Perrin (1938), Epstein (1938), Sweitzer & Rusten (1938a), Anon (1942), Wilson & Ellis-Jones (1943), Keil (1944), Martin & Brightwell (1946), Canizares & Trilla (1957), Schwartz et al. (1957), Key (1961), Zucker (1966), Mitchell (1969), Mitchell et al. (1971, 1972b), Rickett et al. (1971), Griffin (1973). Urticaria (Epstein 1938), rhinitis, and asthma with positive dermal scratch test reactions have been reported from pyrethrum (Spratling 1893, Garratt & Bigger 1923, Ramirez 1930, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Alcoholic extracts of pyrethrum flowers have been found to yield sesquiterpene lactones including β-cyclopyrethrosin, chrysanolide, and chrysanin (Doskotch & El-Feraly 1969, Doskotch et al. 1971, Rickett & Tyszkiewicz 1974). The principal allergen of pyrethrum is pyrethrosin (Mitchell et al. 1972b). The insecticidal principles are the pyrethrins, which are not sesquiterpene lactones, and which have been found not to be responsible for causing dermatitis (Martin & Hester 1941, Lord & Johnson 1947). However, Cronin (1980) asserts that contact allergy to pyrethrins may also occur. They are also said to be irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes (Grant 1974). Sesamin, known for its role in sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae) dermatitis, has also been reported from the flowers of this species (Doskotch & El-Feraly 1969).
Persian insect powder is obtained from these taxa [see also Tanacetum cinerariifolium above]. It was incriminated as a cause of dermatitis by McCord et al. (1921), Sweitzer & Rusten (1938a), and McCord (1962).
Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species.
The strong sensitising properties of this species have been demonstrated in guinea pigs (Hausen & Osmundsen 1983). Dermatitis from the plant has been reported by Maiden (1909b), Shelmire (1939b), Rook (1960), Robertson & Mitchell (1967), Tan & Mitchell (1968), O'Quinn & Isbell (1969), and Hausen & Osmundsen (1983). An Australian woman, aged 75 years, was admitted to hospital with a severe exacerbation of a condition that had been diagnosed four years previously as photodermatitis. She reacted strongly (3+) to this species and to costus root oil derived from Saussurea costus Lipsch. She was also nickel and cobalt sensitive (Burry 1980a). A female florist, aged 40 years, developed dermatitis of the face, neck, hands, and forearms six months after starting to handle this plant under the misleading name "chamomile". Patch tests were positive to petals and leaves, to parthenolide (the principal sesquiterpene lactone of the plant), and to 10 other members of the Compositae including Chrysanthemum L., Aster L., Gaillardia Foug., Calendula L., Zinnia L., and Matricaria L. species (Hausen 1981b). A similar case of a 63 year old hobby gardener, who became contact sensitive to T. parthenium growing in his garden, was reported by Hausen & Osmundsen (1983). Concomitant sensitivity to yarrow (Achillea millefolium L.) and T. parthenium has been reported from Europe (Hausen & Osmundsen 1983, Fernandez de Corres & Corrales Torres 1978). Roed-Petersen & Hjorth (1976) report that this species is rarely found in the Copenhagen flower market since florists are reluctant to stock it because of its sensitising properties. European Tanacetum parthenium yields principally parthenolide; Mexican taxa have been found to contain santamarin, reynosin, chrysartemin A, and chrysartemin B (Hausen 1981b), all of which may be regarded as potential contact allergens (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971). The leaves of the plant are taken as a popular remedy for migraine. Of 300 persons questioned, 82% reported no unpleasant side effects; the remainder experienced mouth ulcers, sore tongue, swollen lips, indigestion, and abdominal pain (Anon 1983). The plant is cultivated for use as a herbal remedy, seasoning, and for making tea. The whole plant is strongly scented and has a bitter taste. Oil of tansy has been used as a vermifuge since the Middle Ages and is toxic in overdose (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis 1977). The fragrance raw material known as tansy oil is derived from this species by steam distillation of the whole plant. It contains principally thujone and isothujone. Tansy oil was found to be slightly irritating to rabbit skin when applied under occlusion for 24 hours. The undiluted oil was found not to be phototoxic to mice and swine. At a dilution of 4% in petrolatum, it was found to be non-irritant in man in a 48 hour closed patch test, and it failed to sensitise any of 25 human volunteers in a maximisation test (Opdyke 1976, p. 869). Hausen (1979a) reported that the plant has a moderate sensitising capacity in guinea pigs. Greenhouse & Sulzberger (1933) reported a case of contact dermatitis from the plant. Individuals who have contact hypersensitivity to members of the Compositae frequently show positive patch test reactions to an acetone extract of this species (Robertson & Mitchell 1967, Tan & Mitchell (1968), Mitchell et al. 1970, Lonkar et al. 1974). A gardener who had dermatitis from Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. did not recover after discarding all his chrysanthemums. He continued to weed his flower-beds and it was found, by a housecall, that the principal weed in his garden was Tanacetum vulgare to which he was also contact sensitive (Mitchell 1970). Hausen (1979a) observed positive patch test reactions to tansy and other members of the Compositae in several patients with chrysanthemum allergy (see Chrysanthemum indicum L.). Hausen & Osmundsen (1983) reported a case of a 63 year old hobby gardener who was sensitised by Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. and cross-sensitive to T. vulgare. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from this species in 7 from 45 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Thune & Solberg (1980) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin of this species in four photosensitive and lichen allergic patients. This species yields potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones. The plant yields lactucopicrin (Kariyone 1971), a sesquiterpene lactone that is potentially allergenic (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971).
This species is of almost cosmopolitan distribution, and is often encountered as a troublesome weed. The roasted roots may be used as a coffee substitute, and the leaves are sometimes eaten in salads. A liquid extract from the roots has been used as a bitter and as a mild laxative (Wade 1977). Hartwell (1968) records that the juice of the plant may be applied to treat warts. Wat et al. (1980b) found an extract of the leaves to have phototoxic and weak antibiotic properties against two fungal test micro-organisms. Ingestion of a decoction of the plant produced itching and tingling erythema, papules, and wheals, followed by desquamation (Smyth 1845). Contact sensitivity to this species, with cross-sensitivity to Anthemis nobilis L. (see Chamaemelum nobile All.) and Apium graveolens L. (fam. Umbelliferae) was reported by Janke (1950). Three patients with "Australian bush dermatitis" showed positive patch test reactions to the plant; the patients were also contact sensitive to Chrysanthemum L. and Olearia Moench, and, in one of the cases, to other members of the Compositae (Burry et al. 1973). Hausen & Schulz (1978b) and Larrègue et al. (1978) reported allergic contact dermatitis caused by dandelions, and observed cross-sensitivity between dandelion, laurel oil (from Laurus nobilis L., fam. Lauraceae), and liverworts belonging to the genus Frullania Raddi (fam. Frullaniaceae). Other patients with contact sensitivity to dandelion were reported by Hausen (1979a). Burry (1979) observed a positive patch test reaction to Taraxacum officinale in a patient with "fleabane dermatitis" (see Conyza bonariensis Cronq.). Hausen (1982) identified taraxinic acid-1'-O-β-D-glucoside as an allergen of Taraxacum officinale. The tree has no thorns but a wound from a splinter of its wood produces a troublesome sore, difficult to heal (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). The wood has been used for musical instruments (Willis 1973). A number of potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from this species. The roots contain α-terthienyl (Chan et al. 1979), a thiophene with phototoxic properties to human skin [see Tagetes L. above]. Eight species are found in western North America. The genus is classified in the tribe Heliantheae.
Reported irritant effects of the plants in man (Muenscher 1951, Schwartz et al. 1957) are not well substantiated. These two North American species cause photodermatitis in sheep upon ingestion (Mathews 1937, Kingsbury 1964). Sheep are usually poisoned in early spring, this being most often observed in Utah and adjacent states in the USA. The sheep develop general debility and photosensitivity leading to a condition known as "big head" — a hyperaemia and swelling of bare patches of skin on the face. Experimental feeding of the plants fails to reproduce the toxic syndrome but it has been found that prior ingestion of black sagebrush (Artemisia nova Nelson) preconditions the sheep for Tetradymia photosensitisation (Johnson 1978).
The fruits have barbed bristles. McCord (1962) listed the plant as being capable of producing dermatitis. Shelmire (1939a) observed no positive patch test reactions to an extract of the plant in 50 patients with "weed dermatitis". Bohlmann et al. (1976) reported the presence of α-terthienyl, a phototoxic thiophene (see Tagetes L.), in the roots of Dyssodia acerosa. This species has been reported to yield α-terthienyl (Bohlmann & Zdero 1979), a phototoxic thiophene (see Tagetes L.).
Three farmers developed contact dermatitis from the plant. Patch tests were positive to Matricaria inodora L., negative to German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) (Kocsis 1961). This species from California, USA and Mexico has been reported to contain eupatoriopicrin (Geissman & Atala 1971), a potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactone (Mitchell & Dupuis 1971). The genus is monotypic. The awned achenes can cause mechanical injury to animals (Hurst 1942). Shelmire (1940) observed contact urticaria from the plant. This North American species has become locally naturalised in Europe. The fruits are used in the treatment of skin diseases and for repelling moths from woollens (Howes 1974). Vernodalol, a potentially allergenic elemanolide, has been reported from this species. Cross-sensitivity to this North American species was observed in one of 50 patients with "weed dermatitis" (Shelmire 1939a). Bohlmann et al. (1981p) reported small quantities of both sesamin and dehydrozaluzanin C in the roots of this species. The former is known for its role in sesame oil (Sesamum indicum L., fam. Pedaliaceae) dermatitis; the latter is a potentially allergenic guaianolide. Ivalin, a potentially allergenic eudesmanolide, has been reported from this species. Fourteen species occur in western North America. The genus is classified in the tribe Heliantheae. 6-Desoxyperozone, a potentially allergenic sesquiterpenoid derivative of 1,4-benzoquinone, has been reported from this species (Bohlmann et al. 1981n). This genus is classified in the tribe Heliantheae. Thirty species are of cosmopolitan distribution, having been unintentionally spread by animals and by man. The hooked fruits become attached to animal hair; sheeps wool that is contaminated with the burs loses its value. The burs and the spines on the stems of some species can cause mechanical injury. Fourteen of 25 patients who had "weed dermatitis" showed positive patch test reactions to an extract of a Xanthium species (Mackoff & Dahl 1951). Rook (1962) observed an individual who was contact sensitive to Xanthium, Chrysanthemum L., and other members of the Compositae. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the following species:
Other species are considered in the monographs below. The burs of this species can cause mechanical injury to cattle, and spoil sheeps' wool. When ingested, they can cause intestinal obstruction; ingestion of the mature plant can cause a fatal syndrome in cattle, producing fever, dermatitis, and black faeces (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). This species can cause mechanical injury to animals. Handling the plant was said to have caused pruritus, erythema, urticaria, and angioneurotic oedema in a person in South Africa who had evidently become allergic to it (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Gardner & Bennetts (1956) include this species in a list of plants known or suspected of causing dermatitis. The plant is spiny and the fruit bears burs with hooked hairs. It can cause mechanical injury of the skin (Wimmer 1926, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Its spines are a nuisance to pickers of hand-harvested crops (Bull & Burrill 2002). Rowe (1939) reported two cases of dermatitis from the plant, with positive patch test reactions to the leaf and, to a lesser extent, to the pollen and also to Artemisia californica Less. and Artemisia vulgaris L. Four patients from 13 who had "Australian bush dermatitis" showed positive patch test reactions to this plant, to Xanthium californicum Greene [see Xanthium strumarium L. var. canadense Torr. & A.Gray below], and to other members of the Compositae (Burry et al. 1973). Xanthatin, a potentially allergenic xanthanolide, has been reported from this species. The plant is rough to the touch and causes itching from the hairs or dust with which it is covered (Cheney, cited by White 1887). The burs, if ingested, cause mechanical irritation of the mouth (Burkill 1935). A weeping eczema from handling the plant has been reported (Maiden 1918a, Maiden 1921, Cleland 1925), as has dermatitis in men working among the plants (Hurst 1942). Patch tests carried out using the leaves of this species crushed in a small quantity of normal saline elicited positive reactions in 7 of 24 contact dermatitis patients tested in New Delhi, India (Singh et al. 1978). Cross-reactions to Parthenium hysterophorus were not observed. Frain-Bell & Johnson (1979) observed positive patch test reactions to the oleoresin from this species in 21 from 55 patients with the photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome. Several potentially allergenic xanthanolides have been reported from this species. Winters et al. (1969) noted the existence of chemical races within this taxon, and also that Xanthium pensylvanicum Wallr. is morphologically indistinguishable from Xanthium strumarium.
Brunsting & Anderson (1934) and Brunsting & Williams (1936) reported contact sensitivity to Xanthium canadense and to other members of the Compositae in about one fifth of 32 patients who had "weed dermatitis". In an investigation of "Australian bush dermatitis" (Burry et al. 1973), 4 patients from 13 were reported to be contact sensitive to Xanthium californicum and to some other members of the Compositae. The cross-sensitivity pattern was not identical in the four cases. Shelmire (1940), referring to "weed dermatitis" in the USA, asserted that Xanthium speciosum is a moderate skin sensitiser. Xanthodiene, a potentially allergenic eremophilanolide, has been reported from this species. This is a genus comprising 10 species formerly included in the genus Aster L. [see above]. The native range of this genus is West & Central USA to North Mexico.a
This is one of two species of Xylorhiza Nutt. that are restricted to selenium bearing clays derived primarily from the Bridger and Mancos Shale formations in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. See also Xylorhiza venusta A.Heller below. Both taxa have been reported to accumulate selenium from the soil in which they grow (Beath et al. 1934, Beath et al. 1939b, Watson 1977, White 2016). Beath et al. (1937) reported levels of 2000 - 2300 µg/g (ppm) selenium in air-dried samples of Xylorhiza parryi, noting that selenium levels varied with plant part, stage of growth, and type of shale-derived soil in which the plants were growing. Ingestion of these selenium accumulators by grazing animals can cause selenosis, symptoms of which include loss of hair, nails, and teeth, epidermal malformations, chronic dermatitis, lassitude, and progressive paralysis (Harr 1978). However, livestock grazing upon selenium-accumulating plants may exhibit slightly different types of poisoning depending upon the species of such plant ingested (Beath et al. 1934).
This is one of two species of Xylorhiza Nutt. that are restricted to selenium bearing clays derived primarily from the Bridger and Mancos Shale formations in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. This taxon has been reported to accumulate selenium (and also uranium; see Brooks 1979) from the soil in which the plants grow (Beath et al. 1939b, Watson 1977, White 2016). See Xylorhiza glabriuscula Nutt. above for further information. This is a genus of 12-15 species found in Mexico. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the following species:
Twenty species are found in the southern United States through to Brazil and Chile. Many varieties and cultivars of Z. elegans Jacq. are cultivated in Europe for their decorative flowers. Shelmire (1939a) reported a species of this genus as a minor skin sensitiser, but gave no clinical details. Potentially allergenic sesquiterpene lactones have been reported from the following species: This species was listed among plants that could cause contact dermatitis (McCord 1962). Hausen (1981b) and Hausen & Osmundsen (1983) observed positive patch test reactions to an extract of this species in patients with contact dermatitis from Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. This species was suspected as a cause of photosensitisation following ingestion by animals (Hurst 1942). Although Compositae dermatitis has previously been regarded as a North American problem, it is now known to occur in Europe, Australia, India, and elsewhere. The most important clinical pattern of dermatitis from members of the Compositae is "weed dermatitis". Adult males are most frequently affected by dermatitis that affects exposed skin surfaces not ordinarily covered by clothing; it is at first seasonal, but later may become perennial. Such allergic contact dermatitis is usually chronic and indurated or lichenified, with marked chronicity although acute exacerbations are frequent. Vesicular or bullous dermatitis is rarely observed, the clinical picture of chronic cases of "weed dermatitis" resembling atopic dermatitis and photodermatitis (Mitchell 1969, Lonkar et al. 1974). Patch test reactions to compositaceous plants in sensitised individuals are frequently severe, vesicular or bullous, and persistent. Patients often react to other members of the family. It has been alleged that atopic individuals are particularly prone to "weed dermatitis", and that photosensitivity can develop. The data suggest that eczematous skin, whether atopic or not, is particularly prone to "weed dermatitis" and that sunlight induces photo-irritation of dermatitic skin (Lonkar et al. 1974). The role of pollen is probably minimal; airborne dried plant material, and weed oleoresin-contaminated fomites can cause, maintain, and aggravate "weed dermatitis" (Lonkar et al. 1974, Howell 1978, Mitchell 1981c). The predilection for middle-aged males, the rarity of affection of females, and the sparing of children are unexplained. Another clinical pattern of Compositae dermatitis is an eczema of the hands from handling the plants, particularly chrysanthemums and salad plants. The clinical pattern of Compositae dermatitis may be that of a lichenified photodermatitis. These cases are invariably missed unless patch tests with members of the Compositae are carried out. There is a certain amount of confusion in the literature regarding photodermatitis and certain manifestations of sesquiterpene lactone dermatitis. The occurrence of photosensitivity or a simulated photosensitivity is periodically reported in the literature (Hand 1944, Fromer & Burrage 1953, Epstein 1960, Tan & Mitchell 1968, Mitchell et al. 1970, Hjorth et al. 1976). It is now clear that sesquiterpene lactone dermatitis can simulate photodermatitis when it is a result of contact with an airborne source of the lactones. This would appear to be the manner in which Australian bush dermatitis, ragweed dermatitis, and parthenium dermatitis are all produced. Calnan (1978a) recommends the inclusion of a chrysanthemum leaf in a photoallergen series in order to detect Compositae dermatitis simulating photodermatitis. An alternative aetiology would be a phototoxic or photoallergic reaction to an airborne source of the lactones (or indeed other dermatologically active materials). This would produce a true contact photodermatitis, which would only be observed on skin that had been in contact with the offending material and had been then exposed to the appropriate wavelength of light. This is at least a theoretical possibility, but there is very little clinical evidence to support it (Crounse 1980). A third, and least understood, possibility is that of the sesquiterpene lactones producing the chronic photosensitivity state known as "photosensitivity dermatitis and actinic reticuloid syndrome" in which any part of the skin, whether it has or has not previously been exposed to (for instance) an airborne source of sesquiterpene lactones, will react idiopathically to particular wavelengths of visible and/or UV light. Present evidence (Frain-Bell et al. 1979, Frain-Bell & Johnson 1979) does not answer the question as to whether or not sesquiterpene lactones produce the syndrome but demonstrates clearly that such patients are commonly contact sensitive to extracts from members of the Compositae. Photosensitivity to members of the Compositae was discussed by Crounse (1980) and by Arlette & Mitchell (1981). Hausen (1977) described a rapid and convenient method of extracting sesquiterpene lactones from members of the Compositae for the preparation of patch test materials. The method involves a brief (30-60 second) immersion of whole leaves in purified ether - a so-called "short ether extract" - which is then dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, and the ether evaporated. The residue may then be dissolved in either acetone or ethanol (10% w/v) or dispersed in petrolatum (1% w/v). Reports of specific hyposensitisation by administration of Ambrosia extracts have rarely included evidence by quantitative patch testing. In such a study, Fisher (1952) reported success by the oral route. Spontaneous desensitisation was not observed. Some other references to hyposensitisation in Ambrosia dermatitis were recorded by Mitchell (1969). References
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